There are seven creations [in the universe] in ascending degrees of importance. High above everything God created the firmament. Above¹ the firmament are² the stars which give light to the world. Above the stars are the trees, because trees yield fruit whereas the stars yield no fruit. Above the trees are the violent winds,¹ because the violent winds go from place to place whereas the trees cannot move from their place. Above the violent winds are the beasts, because the beasts toil and eat whereas the violent winds neither toil nor eat. Above the beasts is man, because man is able to reason whereas the beasts cannot reason. Above man are the ministering angels, because the ministering angels wander from one end of the earth to the other whereas man cannot do so.

footnotes: ¹ i.e. of greater importance and usefulness. ² lit. ‘He created’, and so throughout this passage. ¹ (2a) The phrase could also be translated ‘evil spirits’.

Six things are said of human beings, in three they resemble the animal and in three they resemble the ministering angels.³ ‘In three they resemble the animal’—they eat and drink like the animal, they multiply like the animal, and they excrete like the animal. ‘In three they resemble the ministering angels’—they have understanding like the ministering angels, they walk erect like the ministering angels, and they converse in the holy tongue like the ministering angels.

footnotes: ³ For this and the next paragraph, cf. Ḥag. 16a (Sonc. ed., pp. 101f).

Six things are said of demons, in three they resemble human beings and in three they resemble the ministering angels. ‘In three they resemble human beings’—they eat and drink like human beings, they propagate like human beings, and they die like human beings. ‘In three they resemble the ministering angels’—they have wings like the ministering angels, they know what will happen like the ministering angels, and they wander from one end of the earth to the other like the ministering angels. Some say: They can also change their appearance into any form they wish, and they can see but are invisible.

There are eight types of Pharisees:⁴ the ‘Schechem’ Pharisee,⁵ the ‘trembling’ Pharisee,⁶ the ‘bruised’ Pharisee,⁷ the ‘pestle’ Pharisee,⁸ the ‘ever-busy’ Pharisee,⁹ the ‘duty-seeking’ Pharisee,¹⁰ the Pharisee from love,¹¹ and the Pharisee from fear.¹²

footnotes: ⁴ The commentators without exception correct the number to ‘seven’ in conformity with the parallel passage in Soṭ. 22b (Sonc. ed., pp. 112f) and j.Ber. IX, 5, 14b, and therefore omit one of the types listed here. Cf. below, n. 9. This passage purports to denounce the types enumerated as being eccentric, sanctimonious and hypercritical. ⁵ Either the Pharisee who observes the Torah for what he can profit thereby, like Shechem (cf. Gen. 34, 19) who submitted to the rite of circumcision only from an ulterior motive; or he who carries his good deeds upon his shoulder (שכם), i.e. ostentatiously. ⁶ He walks with exaggerated humility, scarcely lifting his feet from the ground, so that he strikes his feet against stones and stumbles. The reading here is נכפאי, in the parallel passages ניקפי; in either case the word must be derived from the root נקף, ‘to strike’. ⁷ In order not to look at a woman he walks with closed eyes, so that he dashes his face against a wall and bruises himself and bleeds. The reading here, מקציאי, can only be explained by its parallel elsewhere, קיזאי, ‘one who bleeds’. ⁸ He who walks with bowed head like a pestle in a mortar. It is a matter of doubt whether the word מכובאי (or its variant מדוכיא, as in the parallel passages) means the pestle or the mortar. The translation might well be ‘the mortar Pharisee’, i.e. he who wears a large cap on his head in the form of a mortar to cover his eyes. ⁹ lit. ‘the Pharisee who has work (to do)’. This type is omitted in the parallel passages. ¹⁰ The text makes no sense and the reading adopted is that given in the margin מה חובתי ואעשנה, lit. ‘(who exclaims) what is my duty that I may perform it?’ implying that he has already fulfilled every obligation. ¹¹ The word in the text defies interpretation and is obviously a corruption. The reading adopted is that found in the parallel passages, מאהבה, ‘from love’, and even this is explained in a derogatory sense, viz. he performs the commandments for love of the reward or to win the love of his fellows, and not from disinterested motives. ¹² i.e. fear of retribution.

There are eight things which are harmful in excess but beneficial in moderation:¹³ wine, work, sleep, wealth, business affairs,¹⁴. hot water,¹⁵ cohabitation and blood-letting.

footnotes: ¹³ Cf. Giṭ. 70a (Sonc. ed., p. 334). ¹⁴ Or, ‘travel’, omitting the second word ’ereẓ ¹⁵ Either for drinking or bathing.

With seven things did the Holy One, blessed be He, create the world, viz. knowledge, understanding, might, rebuke, justice, lovingkindness and mercy.¹⁶

footnotes: ¹⁶ Cf. Ḥag. 12a (Sonc. ed., p. 65) where ‘ten’ things, i.e. powers, are listed; cf. Rashi ad loc.

And even as He created His world with seven so He created seven [ancestors]: the three Patriarchs and the four Matriarchs.¹⁷

footnotes: ¹⁷ The MSS. add: ‘The three Patriarchs are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; and the four Matriarchs are Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel and Leah’.

The seven virtues which minister before the Throne of Glory are: wisdom,¹⁸ righteousness, justice, lovingkindness, mercy, truth and peace, as it is stated, And I will betroth thee unto Me for ever; yea, I will betroth thee unto Me in righteousness, and in justice, and in loving kindness, and in mercy. And I will betroth thee unto Me in faithfulness; and thou shalt know the Lord.¹⁹. This verse is added to the text by GRA. R. Meir said: Why does the verse add, And thou shalt know the Lord? It teaches that whoever possesses all these virtues knows the intention of the All-present.

footnotes: ¹⁸ GRA substitutes ‘faithfulness’, since for ‘wisdom’ there is no proof-text adduced. ¹⁹ Hos. 2, 21f. In these verses five virtues are enumerated (if ‘faithfulness’ is read in place of ‘wisdom’). The remaining two virtues are inferred from Ps. 85 11, Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed each other

There are seven [celestial] dwellings, viz. the highest abode, the lower abode, the world space, and the four upper regions.²⁰ R. Meir said: There are seven expanses, viz. the curtain, the firmament, the sky, the lofty height, the habitation, the dwelling and the clouds. Correspondingly the earth is described by seven names, viz. earth, land, ground, dry land, terra firma, tebel and world. Why is it called *tebel?*²¹, ‘spices’. Because it is seasoned [metubbeleth] with every thing. Another interpretation is: because its characteristic is to take in and not give out.²² from the root yabal, ‘to lead, bring in’. Everything on earth returns to the earth; cf. Eccl. 3, 20. Some restrict the term tebel in its application to the land of Israel which is seasoned with every thing, and has the power to attract all. In this connection reference is made to Mishnah Keth XIII, 11 (Sonc. ed., p. 709), where it is stated: ‘All may be compelled to go up to the land of Israel to dwell there, but none may be compelled to leave it.’ GRA suggests an entirely different reading, shemmableh ’eth hakkol, ‘because it wears everything away’; but there is no MS. support for this reading. In seven respects one righteous man is superior to his fellow: his wife is more comely²³ than his fellow’s, his children are more handsome²⁴ than his fellow’s, when the two eat from the same dish each enjoys the food according to his deserts, when the two dye material in the same vat for one the colour comes up beautiful and for the other it comes up dull. [Moreover, one is distinguished above the other] in wisdom, understanding, knowledge and stature,²⁵ as it is stated, The righteous man is more excellent than his neighbour.²⁶.

footnotes: ²⁰ Cf. Ḥag. 12b (Sonc. ed., p. 69). ²¹ The Heb. noun means ‘mixed, seasoned’, from tebalin ²² Deriving tebel ²³ In virtue and righteous deeds. ²⁴ Also in religious conduct and good deeds. ²⁵ This last quality brings the number up to eight; it is omitted by GRA. ²⁶ Prov. 12, 26. E.V., The righteous is guided by his friend

Hillel the Elder expounded seven exegetical rules²⁷ in the presence of the Sons of Bathyra,²⁸ viz.²⁹ the inference drawn from a minor premise to a major, the inference drawn from a similarity of words or phrases, [32b] a general principle established on the basis of a law contained in one verse or of laws contained in two verses, the rule when a generalization is followed in the text by a specification, and when a specification is followed in the text by a generalization, the inference drawn from an analogous passage elsewhere, the interpretation of a word or passage from its context. These are the seven rules which Hillel the Elder expounded in the presence of the Sons of Bathyra.³⁰

footnotes: ²⁷ Cf. Tosiftha Sanh. VII end. ²⁸ A distinguished family, of Babylonian descent, at the head of the Sanhedrin in the reign of Herod, and noteworthy for their humility; cf. Pes. 66a (Sonc. ed., p. 333, n. 6) and B.M. 85a (Sonc. ed., p. 485). ²⁹ Cf. with these rules the thirteen principles laid down by R. Ishmael; cf. Sifra, beginning, and P.B. pp. 13f. ³⁰ This sentence is not found in the MSS. What follows is from Aboth 5:10 (Sonc. ed., V, 7, pp. 64f).

SEVEN THINGS MARK THE CLOD AND SEVEN THE WISE MAN. [THE WISE MAN DOES NOT SPEAK BEFORE ONE WHO IS GREATER THAN HE IN WISDOM AND IN YEARS, AND DOES NOT BREAK IN UPON THE WORDS OF HIS FELLOW, AND IS NOT HASTY TO ANSWER; HE ASKS TO THE POINT AND ANSWERS ACCORDING TO THE ACCEPTED DECISION; HE SPEAKS ON THE FIRST POINT FIRST AND ON THE LAST POINT LAST;] AND OF WHAT HE HAS NOT HEARD A TRADITION HE SAYS, ‘I HAVE NOT HEARD’; AND HE IS NOT ASHAMED TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE TRUTH. THE OPPOSITE OF THESE ARE SAID TO MARK THE CLOD.

‘The wise man does not speak before one who is greater than he in wisdom and in years ’:³¹ such was Moses, as it is stated, And Aaron spoke all the words which the Lord had spoken unto Moses, and did the signs in the sight of the people.³² Now who was the more competent to speak, Moses or Aaron? Surely Moses, since he had heard the words from the Almighty, whereas Aaron heard them from Moses. But Moses said, ‘Is it proper for me to speak in the presence of my elder brother?’ He therefore requested Aaron to speak, [which he did,] as it is stated, And Aaron spoke all the words which the Lord had spoken unto Moses. ‘And he does not break in upon the words of his fellow’: such was Aaron, as it is stated, And Aaron spoke unto Moses: Behold, this day have they offered their sin-offering, and their burnt-offering,³³ etc. Aaron accordingly held his peace until Moses had finished speaking and did not say to him, ‘Be brief’. Only then did he reply to Moses, ‘Behold, this day they have offered, etc., and we are mourners!’³⁴. 2. Some say that Aaron drew Moses away from the midst of the community and said to him, ‘Moses, my brother, if it is forbidden a mourner to eat of the [second-] tithe, which is of lesser holiness, how much more is it forbidden a mourner to eat of the sin-offering, which is of greater holiness!’³⁵ At once Moses admitted [that he was right], as it is stated, *When Moses heard that, it was well-pleasing in his sight;*³⁶ 20. and also in the sight of the Almighty.³⁷ This³⁸ also may be derived from the passage, And he [Moses] was angry with Eleazar and with Ithamar, the sons of Aaron that were left³⁹ 16.—hence it was said that when a man entertains⁴⁰ his disciples he only turns his face to the greatest, but when he is angry he only turns to the least of them, as it is stated, And he was angry with Eleazar and with Ithamar, although in fact Aaron was also included in the indignation. Aaron was older than Moses, and the Holy One, blessed be He, is greater than Aaron; why then did He not speak direct with Aaron? Because he was not one to stand in the breach, for had he been one to stand in the breach, sin would not have caused the tragedy of Nadab and Abihu.⁴¹ Similarly in connection with our father Abraham.⁴² When he was interceding on behalf of the men of Sodom, the Holy One, blessed be He, said to him, If I find in Sodom fifty righteous within the city, then I will forgive all the place for their sake.⁴³ Now it was revealed and known before Him Who spake and the world came into being that had there been three or five righteous men in Sodom, sin would not have brought upon them the calamity. Nevertheless the Holy One, blessed be He, waited until Abraham finished pleading and then answered him, as it is stated, And the Lord went His way, as soon as He had left off speaking to Abraham—if it is possible to say so, He said to him, ‘I will now take My leave’—and Abraham returned unto his place.⁴⁴ 33.

footnotes: ³¹ lit. ‘and in number’, i.e. either in number of years, or in the number of scholars who agree with the opposite view, they forming the majority. ³² Ex. 4, 30. ³³ Lev. 10, 19. ³⁴ Because of the tragic death of Nadab and Abihu, Aaron’s sons. Ibid ³⁵ Cf. Zeb. 101a (Sonc. ed., p. 486). ³⁶ ibid. ³⁷ i.e. Aaron’s reply pleased the Almighty. ³⁸ This and the following paragraph are clearly misplaced. ³⁹ ibid. ⁴⁰ lit. ‘makes a feast’. A variant is ‘teaches’. ⁴¹ Adopting the reading as suggested by GRA. V has ‘He had not sons able to stand in the breach; for had his sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, been able to stand in the breach, sin could not …’ Because Aaron did not resist the people when they made the golden calf—it being Moses who stood in the breach to avert God’s anger and not Aaron (Ps. 106, 23)—he forfeited the privilege of God communicating directly with him. ⁴² God did not break in upon Abraham’s words. ⁴³ Gen. 18, 26. ⁴⁴ ibid.

‘And he is not hasty to answer’: such was Elihu the son of Barachel the Buzite, as it is stated, I said: Days should speak.⁴⁵ This teaches that they⁴⁶ sat in silence before Job; when he stood they stood; when he sat they sat; when he ate they ate; and when he drank they drank. Until finally he asked leave of them to speak, as it is stated, After this opened Job his mouth and cursed his day … and said: Let the day perish wherein I was born, and the night wherein it was said: A man-child is brought forth.⁴⁷ III, 1-3. ‘Perish the day when my father drew near to my mother and she told him that she was with child!’ And whence do we know that they did not speak confusedly together? Because it is stated, *And Job spoke and said;*⁴⁸ 2. *Then answered Eliphaz the Temanite and said;*⁴⁹ IV, 1. *Then answered Bildad the Shuhite and said;*⁵⁰ VIII, 1. *Then answered Zophar the Naamathite and said;*⁵¹ XI, 1. And Elihu the son of Barachel answered and said.⁵² XXXII, 6. Scripture places them in order, one following the other, to teach all who enter the world that a wise man does not speak before one who is greater than he in wisdom, and he does not break in upon the words of his fellow, and he is not hasty to answer. ‘He asks to the point’: such was Judah, as it is stated, I will be surety for him.⁵³ ‘He asks not to the point’: such was Reuben, as it is stated, And Reuben spoke unto his father saying: Thou shalt slay my two sons.⁵⁴ XLII, 37. ‘He speaks on the first point first’: such was Jacob.⁵⁵ XXXII, 18f, where Jacob instructs his servants in charge of the gift to Esau to reply on first things first and last things last. Cf. Rashi ad loc. Others say: such was Sarah.⁵⁶ XXIV, 24 and Rashi ad loc. Cf. II ARN XL end. ‘And on the last point last’: such were the men of Haran.⁵⁷ XXIX, 4f. Cf. II ARN loc. cit. where the men of Haran exemplify the virtue ‘of what he has not heard, he says: I have not heard’. ‘And acknowledges the truth’: such was Moses, as it is stated, And when Moses heard that, it was well-pleasing in his sight.⁵⁸ So also did the Holy One, blessed be He, acknowledge the truth, as it is stated, *And the Lord said unto me: They have well said that which they have spoken;*⁵⁹ and it is also stated, The daughters of Zelophehad speak aright.⁶⁰

footnotes: ⁴⁵ Job 32, 7. Only after waiting some days did he venture to speak. ⁴⁶ i.e. Job’s friends. ⁴⁷ ibid. ⁴⁸ ibid. ⁴⁹ ibid. ⁵⁰ ibid. ⁵¹ ibid. ⁵² ibid. ⁵³ Gen. 43, 9. Judah’s offer guaranteeing Benjamin’s safe return was reasonable and impressed Jacob more than Reuben’s wild offer. ⁵⁴ ibid. ⁵⁵ Cf. ibid. ⁵⁶ There is no verse to prove this of Sarah. The commentators substitute ‘Rebekah’ who, in conversation with Abraham’s servant, answered the first question first and the last question last; ibid. ⁵⁷ ibid. ⁵⁸ Lev. 10, 20. The text as emended by GRA is adopted. ⁵⁹ Deut. 18, 17. ⁶⁰ Num. 27, 7.