(א) לאיזה ענין עשה הצלם הזה בהוצאה רבה כזו, והרעיש כל שרי מלכותו להתאסף לבקעת דורא להשתחוות אל פסל מעשי ידי אנוש ובעונש מופלג כזה, הלא דבר הוא?, ומה הסמיכות של מעשה צלם הזה אל הצלם אשר ראה בחלום וידע והודע שיש אלהי האלהים מקים מלכים ומעדה מלכים ואיך כחש לו להשתחוות לפסל זהב שקר נסכו ולא רוח בו?:

Questions: (1) For what purpose did he make this image with such great expense, and stir all the officials of his kingdom to gather in the plain of Dura to bow down to a statue made by human hands, under such an extreme penalty? Surely this is something that requires explanation. And what is the connection between this act of the image and the image that he saw in the dream—where he knew and acknowledged that there is a God of gods who establishes kings and removes kings? How then did he contradict himself by bowing to a golden statue, a false image in which there is no spirit?

“King Nebuchadnezzar made an image of gold, sixty cubits high and six cubits wide, and set it up in the plain of Dura,” — Saadia Gaon and after him Isaac Abarbanel already explained that he intended thereby to nullify the meaning of the dream, which had revealed that it was decreed from heaven that after the head of gold—the kingdom of Babylon—would come the kingdoms of silver, bronze, and iron, representing other rulers. Therefore, he made in actuality a statue resembling in form the image he had seen in the dream—but entirely of gold—and commanded that all peoples and languages bow down to it, as if all were willingly accepting upon themselves that the kingdom of gold would endure forever and never pass away. This also involved practices of talismanic rites and forms of magic and divination, according to their beliefs at that time, for they thought that through such actions they could nullify heavenly decrees and alter them. Therefore, he insisted that it be entirely of gold, so that the other metals would not be remembered or arise again within the image that represents all the kingdoms of the world. Its height was sixty and its width six, corresponding to the dimensions of the image he had seen in the dream and later visualized while awake when speaking with Daniel. And he set it up in the plain of Dura—which, according to the Sages, is the same valley where the generation of the dispersion gathered to build the tower. Their intention there had likewise been to establish for themselves a powerful, universal, and eternal dominion from beginning to end, to overcome heavenly decrees and oppose divine kingship. His intent was similar to theirs; therefore, he chose that place, which was especially suited for such a purpose.

(ב - ז) מן הפקודה נראה שלא אסף רק השרים והשלטונים כמו שבאר בפסוק ב' ובפסוק ג' שרק השרים לבדם באו, ואיך אמר בפסוק ה' לכון אמרין עממיא אומיא ולשניא, שמבואר שהיתה הפקודה לכל העמים לא להשרים לבד, וכן אמר בפסוק ז' שכל העמים נפלו על פניהם, וזה סותר לפסוק ב' ג'?, וגם איך אפשר שכל העמים יתקבצו אל הבקעה והוא היה לו תחת ממלכתו עם עצום כחול אשר על שפת הים לרוב ולא תכיל הארץ אותם?, ולמה כפל חמשה פעמים שישתחוו לצלם שהקים נבוכדנצר או לצלם הזהב שהקים נבוכדנצר מלכא, שכבר נודע מהות הצלם ומי הקימו:

Questions: (2–7) From the command it appears that he gathered only the officials and rulers, as stated in verses 2–3, where only the officials came. How then does it say in verse 5, “to you it is said, O peoples, nations, and languages,” which implies that the command was directed to all peoples, not just the officials? And likewise in verse 7 it says that all the peoples fell down, which contradicts verses 2–3. Furthermore, how is it possible that all the peoples would gather in the plain, when he had under his rule a multitude as numerous as the sand on the seashore, and the land could not contain them? And why does it repeat five times that they should bow to the image that Nebuchadnezzar set up, or to the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king set up, when the nature of the image and who established it was already known?

“And King Nebuchadnezzar sent to gather all the officials of the provinces,” — (all the titles mentioned refer to ranks of authority that were known in those days), “to come to the dedication of the image which King Nebuchadnezzar had set up,” — for he desired that all peoples and languages accept upon themselves the rule of this golden image, which symbolizes the kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar and his descendants until the end of generations. Since it was impossible to assemble all peoples in that place, he acted wisely by gathering all the leaders and rulers of the nations, both great and small; for the leaders serve as representatives and agents of the peoples, and whatever they do is considered as if the entire nation has done it, as is the custom of states. Thus, when they would bow and accept the rule of the image, it would carry the force as though all peoples and languages had bowed and accepted it.

“Then all the officials gathered for the dedication of the image that King Nebuchadnezzar had set up,” — He explains that they were explicitly summoned to come for the dedication of the image, so that at the time of their assembly it was clear that they had gathered for this very purpose. In this way, it became known to all the nations that their leaders were going to accept the rule of the golden kingdom forever, and from that point on, whatever they did would be considered as done with the consent and on behalf of all the peoples. “And they stood before the image that Nebuchadnezzar had set up,” — For if the intent had merely been that they bow from afar, each in his own place, he could have commanded that each person do so in his own city, or even that the peoples themselves carry it out. But since he wanted them to stand before the image in its presence, this could not be done by all the peoples themselves, but only through their officials, who served as their representatives for this purpose.

And the herald proclaimed loudly: To you it is declared, O peoples, nations, and languages, this statement can be understood in two ways. First, it means: to you it is declared and commanded—you, the peoples, nations, and languages. Although not all the peoples were physically present, but only their officials, since the officials are the authorized representatives of all the peoples and stand in their place, it is as though all the peoples are present here, and to them the herald calls that they should bow to the image. It also carries a second meaning: the peoples, nations, and languages are speaking to you, meaning that the peoples are addressing the officials who stand here, saying that all the peoples instruct them to bow to the image on their behalf and with their authority. Thus, their act of bowing is not merely their own, but is done as the agency and expression of all the peoples, nations, and languages. There is also a distinction between “people,” “nation,” and “language.” Each people has its own ruler, each nation is distinguished by its own religion, and each language is distinguished by its own speech. Thus, those present included officials representing political authority, religious leaders representing their respective faiths, and leaders representing the different linguistic groups.

“At the moment that you hear the sound of the horn,” — (these are the seven kinds of musical instruments), “you shall fall down and bow to the golden image that King Nebuchadnezzar has set up,” — for at the coronation of a king it was their custom to play musical instruments, and the beginning of the music was the signal for all to fall and bow in order to accept his kingship forever. And the seven types of instruments were aligned with the seven celestial ministers, to draw down influence from the ruling stars, according to their belief concerning the lower world. Throughout the passage it repeatedly states, “the golden image which King Nebuchadnezzar has set up,” in order to indicate that the primary intent is threefold: because it is an image modeled after the image he saw in the dream; because it is of gold, symbolizing the kingdom of Babylon; and because it is King Nebuchadnezzar’s, signifying that his kingdom is to endure eternally.

“And whoever does not fall down and bow, at that moment” — that is, immediately — “shall be cast into a burning fiery furnace,” — this is a punishment for one who rebels against the king’s command, and also to burn and eradicate the rebel from the world, so that he would be as though he had never existed, and his rebellion would leave no trace in the spiritual matter which he intended through this eternal kingdom.

“Accordingly, at that time, when all the peoples heard the sound of the horn and all kinds of music, all the peoples, nations, and languages fell down and bowed to the golden image that King Nebuchadnezzar had set up,” — As explained above, not all the peoples were physically present there, but only the officials of the nations. However, since they were the representatives and authorized agents of the peoples, it is considered as though all the peoples themselves were present and bowed. Yet, upon closer examination—since here the instrument called “symphonia” is omitted from the list, and since it says “at that time” rather than “at that moment”—it appears that, in addition to the officials bowing in the plain of Dura before the image, the peoples themselves also bowed in their own cities from afar, to demonstrate their agreement with the actions of their representatives. In every city, musical instruments were likewise played on that day, and then all the peoples fell upon their faces, each in his own place. There was, however, a distinction: the instrument called the symphonia, which was a prestigious and rare instrument found only in the royal court, was played only in the plain of Dura; in the other cities, where they did not have the symphonia, they played only the other instruments mentioned here. Thus, it teaches that besides the officials who fell before the image—this occurring at that very moment—all the peoples, nations, and languages also fell in their own cities at that time, meaning on that day, though not at the exact same moment, since they could not synchronize the precise time. In this way, there was a universal act of bowing: both by the officials gathered in the plain of Dura and by the peoples themselves in their own cities. And the bowing of the peoples may have been done of their own accord, to affirm the king’s command, or it may have been commanded by the king, even though this is not stated explicitly, it is implied within the command issued to the officials.

(ח - יב) מ"ש שאכלו קורציהן די יהודיא משמע שהלשינו על כל היהודים, והם לא דברו סרה רק על חמו"ע, והשאלה העצומה מדוע לא הלשינו על דניאל שגם הוא לא השתחוה לצלם, ולמה הזכירו מה שמינה אותם על מדינת בבל, ומה שאין עובדים לאלהיו, מה שייך זה לענין השתחוית הצלם:

Questions: (8–12) What is meant by the phrase “they accused the Jews”, which implies that they slandered all the Jews, when in fact they spoke only against Daniel’s companions? And the major question is: why did they not accuse Daniel as well, since he too did not bow to the image? And why did they mention that he had appointed them over the province of Babylon? And what is the relevance of saying that they do not serve his gods—what does this have to do with the matter of bowing to the image?

“Accordingly, at that time certain Chaldean men came forward and accused the Jews,” — that is, if only the officials had bowed, they would not have been able to accuse all the Jews. But since the peoples themselves also accepted the matter willingly and bowed, each in his own place, and Daniel’s companions did not bow on account of their religion—the religion of the Jews—they thought that on this basis the king would become angry at all the Jews because of their religion, just as Haman became angry at all the Jews when he learned that Mordecai did not bow to him on account of his faith.

“And they said to the king: Did you not issue a decree that every man who hears the sound of the instruments must bow down, and whoever does not bow shall be cast into the burning fiery furnace?” — that is, you did not distinguish between one religion and another.

“There are certain men whom you have appointed over the affairs of the province of Babylon—these men have not paid heed to you; they do not serve your gods, and they have not bowed to the golden image which you have set up,” — They explain that these men were not common people outside the scope of the decree, but rather officials appointed over the province of Babylon. Therefore, they were included among the provincial rulers to whom the command applied, acting as representatives on behalf of the entire province. They further clarify that their refusal to bow was due to their religion and their law. For this reason they said that because they do not serve your gods, therefore they did not bow to the image. By this, they intended to accuse all the Jews, implying that their religion prevents them from observing the king’s decrees. This also resolves the question asked by the commentators as to why they did not accuse Daniel, who also did not bow to the image: the decree did not apply to him, since he was not a provincial governor over a city or region, and was not among the officials representing their provinces. Rather, he served only as an advisor to the king. But Daniel’s companions were targeted because they were officials appointed over the province of Babylon. And what it says earlier, “every man who hears,” refers to those assembled—the officials of the nations who stood before the image and heard the music. Daniel, however, was not present at all, since he was not included among the provincial rulers who were summoned.

(יג - טו) למה צוה להביאם לפניו, ולמה אמר להם שישתחוו עתה אל הצלם, והלא כבר נתחייבו מיתה על ידי שלא השתחוו תיכף והפקודה היתה שמי שלא יפול וישתחוה תיכף בההוא שעתא יושלך אל הכבשן, למה אמר להם לאלהי לא איתיכון פלחין, הלא כבר ידעו כל זאת כל יושבי ארץ שישראל אין עובדים לאלילים רק לה' לבדו, ולמה אמר אחר כך ותסגדון לצלמא די עבדית ובכל הענין אמר ע"ז לשון הקמה, ולמה רק פה תפס לשון די עבדית ולא אמר די הקימת:

Questions: (13–15) Why did he command that they be brought before him, and why did he tell them to bow now to the image, when they had already incurred the death penalty for not bowing immediately, since the decree was that whoever did not fall and bow at that moment would be cast into the furnace? And why did he say to them, “you do not serve my gods,” when this was already known to all inhabitants of the land—that Israel does not serve idols but only Hashem? And why did he then say, “and you shall bow to the image that I made,” whereas throughout the passage he used the language of “setting up,” and only here does he use the expression “that I made” instead of “that I set up”?

“Then Nebuchadnezzar, in rage and fury, commanded that Daniel’s companions be brought; and these men were brought before the king. Nebuchadnezzar answered and said: Is it true, O Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, that you do not serve my gods and do not bow to the golden image that I have set up?” — According to the law, he should have immediately ordered them to be burned in the fire, and not brought them before him for judgment or argument—especially since, as will be explained, he still wished to pardon them if they would now bow, which contradicts his decree that anyone who transgressed was to be put to death without exception. However, when he heard from the accusers themselves that the reason they refrained from bowing was because of their religion, which forbade them to bow to idols and images, he realized that they were not liable to death. For he had granted freedom to all religions and had not compelled any people to violate their faith. And since all other nations—even those who worship other gods—are not prevented by their beliefs from bowing to any image of silver or gold, whereas Israel is specifically warned against this, they were not yet deserving of punishment. Only if he were to bring them before him and explicitly command them to violate their religion would they then be liable. Therefore, he ordered that they be brought before him, and said to them: “I understand the truth,”—namely, that because you do not serve my gods, for that reason you did not bow to the golden image that I set up. This serves as a defense for their past action, showing that they were not deserving of death, since they acted in accordance with the prohibition of their law.

“Now, if you are ready, at the time you hear the sound of the horn and all kinds of music, you shall fall down and bow to the image that I have made; but if you do not bow, at that moment you shall be cast into the burning fiery furnace,” — With regard to the future, I command you to bow when you hear the music of the instruments, and not to take your religion into account; for from now on, if you transgress my command, you will be punished. However, in his words he changes the expression and says, “you shall bow to the image that I have made,” whereas throughout the account the image is described with the language of “setting up”—“which Nebuchadnezzar set up”—and only here does he use the language of “making.” This is because, insofar as the image was merely made, it did not constitute idolatry, but was simply a monument to the king, symbolizing the kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar, corresponding to the golden image he saw in the dream. From this perspective, they could bow to it as an act of honoring the king, not as an act of idolatry or divinity. But insofar as he had set it up, it carried the aspect of idolatry, for he made himself into a god, or directed it toward his patron deity; therefore he insisted that all bow before it as an expression of divinity. From that perspective, he knew they would rather give their lives than bow. Therefore, he told them that he was not asking them to bow from that aspect—that of his having set it up as an object of worship—but only from the aspect that he had made it, as a royal monument. From this perspective, it would be permitted for them to bow. Thus he commands them now to bow when they hear the music, as an act of honor to the king; and if they refuse even this, they will be cast into the furnace, for in such a case they would not be obligated to give up their lives. He added further that they should not rely on being saved from his hand, saying: “And who is the god who will deliver you from my hand?”

“Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah answered and said to the king: O Nebuchadnezzar, we have no need to deliberate in order to answer you concerning this matter,” — that is, concerning this last statement of yours, that there is no god able to save. The answer is ready and fluent in our mouths. And they addressed him by name, saying “Nebuchadnezzar,” as if to say: in this matter you are not king over us—for you rule over our bodies and our land, but not over our souls in matters pertaining to religion. “There is a God whom we serve who is able to save us from the furnace, and from your hand, O king, He will save,” — that is, God is able to save, and He will indeed save—not only from the furnace, but also from your hand, so that you will not even be able to cast us into the fire at all. And the commentators explained that not only will He save from the fire, but even from your hand—since you possess free will, and deliverance from one who acts by free choice is even more difficult—yet He will save.

“But if not,” — that is, if He does not wish to save (even though He is able), nevertheless let it be known to you, O king, that since we do not serve your gods, therefore we will not bow to the golden image that you have set up. They were precise in saying that they would not bow because of the aspect that he set it up; for even if its original making was merely as a royal monument, its establishment was for the sake of divinity. And since we do not serve your gods, we will not bow—and we are prepared to give up our lives even if God does not save us.

(יט - כ) למה צוה להסיק התנור על אחד שבעה והלא בזה יקלו היסורים אם יושלכו באש בוער שימותו מהרה, והעונש היה יותר קשה אם היה ניסוק כדרכו?, ולמה הוצרך גבורי חיל אשר בחילו לאסור אותם, וכי עלתה על דעתו שילחמו נגד האוסרים אותם:

Questions: (19–20) Why did he command that the furnace be heated seven times more than usual—would this not lessen the suffering, since if they are cast into an intensely burning fire they will die quickly, whereas the punishment would be harsher if it were heated in the ordinary manner? And why did he require mighty men of his army to bind them—did he think it possible that they would resist and fight against those who were binding them?

“Then he was filled with wrath against Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, and the expression of his face was changed; and he answered and commanded that the furnace be heated seven times more than it was usually heated. And he commanded the mighty men of his army to bind Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah and to cast them into the burning fiery furnace,” — In response to their statement that God is able to save them from the fire, he ordered the furnace to be heated sevenfold, for he thought that if divine power might overcome a small fire, it would not prevail against a great one. For idolaters believed that divine power is limited, and that if natural force increases greatly, it can overpower it. For this same reason, he commanded mighty warriors to bind them. It is indeed astonishing—why would strong soldiers be needed to bind three men already condemned to death? Rather, in response to their statement that God would also save them from his hand, he intended that the strength of his warriors stand against divine power. This too reflects their mistaken belief that there are mighty men who can prevail even against divine beings, as the Philistines said that they would strengthen themselves and fight against the gods.

“Then these men were bound in their garments and cast into the burning fiery furnace,” — because of the haste, lest God save them from their hand, they did not strip off their garments, but bound them as they were.

“Accordingly, because the king’s command was urgent, and the furnace was heated excessively, the flame of the fire killed the men who brought up Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah,” — for if the matter had not been carried out with such haste, they would have been more cautious; and if the heat had not been so intense, they would not have been burned. But due to the combination of the great intensity of the fire and the lack of care, those who cast them in were burned.

“And these three men, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, fell bound into the midst of the burning fiery furnace,” — after those who cast them in were burned, they were unable to throw them fully into the furnace, and they remained lying at the edge of the furnace; from there they fell in by themselves, since they were bound and could not descend.

“Then Nebuchadnezzar was astonished and rose in haste, and said to his officials: Did we not cast three men bound into the furnace? And they answered and said to the king: It is true. He answered and said: Behold, I see four men, unbound, walking in the midst of the fire, and no harm has come to them; and the appearance of the fourth is like a messenger,” — He said: was it not that (1) we cast in three, (2) that they were bound, and (3) that they were thrown into the furnace, and thus should have been harmed by the fall? Yet I see instead of three, four; instead of bound, they are walking; instead of being consumed by the fire, they are walking within it; and instead of being harmed by the fall, no injury is upon them. He added that the appearance of the fourth was like a messenger, for the angel who descended to save them was revealed before his eyes in an awe-inspiring form, like the angel seen at the destruction of the camp of Sennacherib, as explained by the Sages. The Sages further taught that the angel appointed over hail sought to descend and cool the fire, but Gabriel said that this would not be fitting for the honor of God. Rather, he himself would descend—he would heat the fire from without and cool it from within, producing a miracle within a miracle. That is, there were two possible ways to save them: one, that the fire be nullified by an opposing cooling force—yet this would not be as great a miracle; instead, it was more fitting that Gabriel descend, for he is the angel appointed over the power of fire. In this way, the lower fire is nullified at its root above, since “fire consumes fire,” and every natural force is nullified by its higher root, as explained in the interpretation of Psalms. Thus, whereas they had thought that fire is a natural force acting by necessity, they now understood that above it stands a higher power—a conscious, governing force. And when the higher, angelic force of fire prevails, the lower, partial fire is nullified by the universal power from above: it burns outwardly—to destroy those who cast them in—and cools inwardly—to save those who were cast in. For it acts with intellect and choice, not by necessity like a natural force. And this power, which appeared in the form of a divine being, he saw walking within the fire.

“Then Nebuchadnezzar came near to the opening of the furnace and said: Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, servants of the Most High God, come out and come here,” — He recognized that this was the work of the Most High God, before whom the lower natural forces—those which they attributed to lesser divine powers—are subdued. And the Sages noted that he said, “come out,” and did not say, “come up,” implying that the furnace had risen, for ordinarily a furnace is set deep below.

“Then the satraps gathered,” — etc. (and the fact that it does not mention the other officials such as the prefects and treasurers suggests that they were priests of idolatry, as explained above—that he had also summoned the religious leaders—and they were put to shame when they saw that their worship was false; and under his rule there were also many fire-worshipers at that time, as is known, and they were embarrassed by the failure of their trust; thus the Sages expressed this metaphorically by saying that those four were burned then), “and they saw these men, that the fire had no power over their bodies, nor was a hair of their head singed, nor were their garments altered, and no smell of fire was upon them,” — for they sought excuses, saying that perhaps they had anointed themselves with salamander (a substance thought to resist fire), but they saw that even the hair was not singed. Still, they argued that hair draws nourishment from the body, and perhaps the anointing protected it; therefore it says that they saw that even the garments were not altered by the fire. And when they tried to explain even this by saying that there are garments woven from materials that fire does not affect, it adds that no smell of fire was upon them—something that cannot be explained by any natural means.

“Nebuchadnezzar answered and said,” — He declared to them that this was the power of a supreme God, and therefore said, “Blessed is their God,” and he explained that divine providence rests upon those who serve Him; hence, “the God of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego,” meaning that His providence is especially directed toward them. He further explained that this was not accomplished through natural forces—for example, by sending a cooling force to counteract the fire—but rather beyond nature; thus he said, “who sent His messenger and delivered them.” And it was not through charms, talismans, or incantations, but through their trust in God; thus he said, “His servants who trusted in Him.” He clarified that their trust was complete in every respect. One might think that they knew with certainty that the fire would not harm them, and therefore did not bow—but on the contrary, “they changed the king’s word and gave over their bodies,” meaning they surrendered their bodies to be burned even if God would not save them, as they had said: “But if not, let it be known to you, O king, that we do not serve your gods.” And he added that not only did they give up their lives so as not to serve, but even so as not to bow, even though he had only asked them to bow to a royal monument, not to perform actual idolatrous worship, as explained above.

“And from me a decree is issued: that any people, nation, or language that speaks any error [that is, a disgraceful word] against the God of Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah shall be cut to pieces, and his house shall be made a refuse heap, for there is no other god who can deliver in this way,” — that is, therefore He is greater than all gods. And although no punishment was imposed for speaking against the worship of other gods—since the various nations worshipped different deities—this is because those gods were thought to rule only over separate, limited domains. But Hashem, who has shown power to save in such a way, is greater than all gods.

“Then the king prospered Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah in the province of Babylon,” — not only did he not remove them from their high positions, but he elevated them even further.

(לא - לג) מה רצה במכתב הלז ולאיזה תכלית כתבו, ולמה אמר ששפר קדמי להחויא, על מה, ולמה. ומהו אתיא ותמהיא, ושאתוהי רברבין ותמהוהי תקיפין, וכפל מלכות ושלטנו, ואצל המלכות תפס מלת עלם, ואצל השלטונות לדור ודור:

Questions: (31–33) What did he intend with this letter, and for what purpose was it written? And why did he say, “it seemed good before me to declare,”—to declare what, and for what reason? And what is meant by “signs and wonders,” and by “His signs are great and His wonders mighty”? And why does he repeat “kingdom” and “dominion”? And regarding the kingdom he uses the expression “everlasting,” while regarding the dominion he says “from generation to generation”—what is the distinction between these?

“Nebuchadnezzar,” — this is the text of the letter that Nebuchadnezzar sent to all the peoples, and it begins by identifying the sender: “Nebuchadnezzar the king,” for it was the custom of kings to state their name at the beginning of their message. And to whom is it written? He explains: “to all peoples, nations, and languages,” (their distinctions were explained above in verse 4), “who dwell in all the earth,” for he ruled over the entire world.

“Signs and wonders,” — For at first he denied providence, and he also denied the creation of the world, holding that everything follows necessarily from its causes, and that God has no power to alter nature or the celestial order. Therefore, he denied miracles that involve a disruption of nature, and especially denied providence, thinking that God had entrusted governance to the heavenly ministers; thus people worshiped and bowed to them. This was also the idea behind the image, which was made according to astrological wisdom and the worship of the stars, in order to establish the golden kingdom to rule over all until the end of generations. For this he was punished, as will be explained. But after he recognized the power and might of God, he sought to correct his sin by making known, through a public letter to all peoples, the acts of power and might of the Creator. He explained this from the perspective of experience—through what happened to him—by which he attained clear knowledge through direct observation, and thus he acknowledged in his letter that God has the power to alter the natural order. Therefore he said “signs and wonders,” which are miracles. Signs are events that occur within the natural order, through which it becomes evident that God oversees and governs nature (for it is not necessary that a sign be something extraordinary or unnatural; rather, through the sign one recognizes providence), such as when future events are foretold and then come to pass, like what was revealed to him in the night vision before it occurred. Wonders, however, are when the natural order is changed and extraordinary events occur beyond nature, such as when he was transformed into a beast and afterward restored to his kingdom—something that departs from the normal course of nature. Through this he acknowledged that God has the power to change nature. He further said, “which the Most High God has done with me,” thereby acknowledging individual providence, and also that God acts directly without intermediary, even though He is the Most High. Thus, he declares that the Most High God Himself performed these acts with him in a wondrous manner. And this is what he means by “it seemed good to me to declare,”—in order that all peoples may recognize the power, might, and wonders of God.

“How great are His signs,” — the signs that He performs, through which it is recognized that He governs nature and that everything is done through His providence, are called “great,” for greatness is attributed to God’s governance through the chain of natural causes and effects, as explained regarding the term “the great God,” where “great” denotes that He is the first and ultimate cause of all things. “And how mighty are His wonders,” — however, the wonders and miracles by which He alters the natural order are called “mighty,” for the disruption of nature is associated with strength and power, and from this aspect He is called “the mighty God.” He then explains correspondingly: with regard to “how great are His signs,” he says, “His kingdom is an everlasting kingdom,”; and with regard to “how mighty are His wonders,” he says, “and His dominion is from generation to generation.” For, as I have explained in the interpretation of Psalms—“Your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and Your dominion is throughout all generations”—kingdom refers to rule that operates according to the order of nature, while dominion refers to rule that changes nature and governs by force according to His will. Kingship functions with the consent of those governed, whereas dominion is exercised with power. There is also a distinction between “forever” and “from generation to generation.” “Forever” refers to the continuous, undivided span of eternal time, while “from generation to generation” refers to that same eternal time as divided into successive generations. Thus it says, “Your name, O Hashem, endures forever; Your remembrance, O Hashem, from generation to generation”: the name refers to the fixed and orderly governance established from the six days of creation, which continues without interruption forever; whereas the remembrance refers to the wonders He performs at particular times so that His deeds and might be remembered—these are not constant, but vary from generation to generation as needed at specific times. Therefore, regarding kingship he says, “an everlasting kingdom,” and regarding dominion—when He alters nature—he says, “from generation to generation.”