Blessed be God, the Mighty, the Wise, the One who is nigh, Responsive, the One, the Eternal, the Primordial, the Creator; greatly exalted be He. Verily, when we look at man who is the best of all the creatures of the Creator, exalted be His majesty, we recognize that he is the object aimed at in the creation of all substances and beings. Furthermore, he is best proportioned, as regards constitution, of all living beings; and, in addition to this, most perfect and most beautiful of form, and most completely fashioned. He possesses a rational soul, elemental,⁴ wise, everlasting, which does not perish with him. For all this there are clear proofs, both intellectual and Scriptural, which every intelligent man knows. The surest proof that man is pre-eminent among creatures is, that he partakes of the state of the angels in regard to speech and understanding. These two are divine and spiritual properties. Nay more, we see, besides this, that the angels busy themselves with the righteous man, as we learn from the case of Abraham, peace be unto him, in that they brought him glad tidings and also warned him; likewise from the case of Isaac and Jacob, our fathers. The latter said in the course of his excellent prayer for his son (Gen. xlviii. 16), "The angel which redeemed me";¹ and Scripture says of him (Hos. xii. 5), "Yea, he had power over the angel and prevailed"; and Daniel said (vi. 23), "My God hath sent his angel." Concerning the help vouchsafed to the pious and the destruction of their enemies, it is said (II Kings xix. 35), "And it came to pass that night that the angel of the Lord went out and smote in the camp of the Assyrians." There are many similar examples, which I will not go to the length of enumerating.

footnotes: ⁴ Horovitz, accepting the Hebrew translation, פנינה would render this "transparent," "luminous" (p. 108, note 65); cf. Dukes ("Phil."," p. 57, note 5). ¹ In giving the English of Gabirol's biblical citations, I have quoted as much as is required to elucidate the general context. In doing so, I depart from the precedent laid down by the author or scribe, who frequently cites no more than an initial word or two of the Scriptural passage, sometimes even the non-essential ones, leaving it to the reader to recall the rest. In citing the number of chapter and verse, the Hebrew original has been followed.

We know that some men may undoubtedly be superior to others, nay more, that one man may be equal to a large number of men although they be of one form and one composition,² except that the soul of one man is predisposed to worldly honor, with the help of the celestial bodies,³ and his preference for ethical practice, and because the baser part of him is obedient to the higher, i.e., his intellect exercises control over his physical nature.⁴ But if his aim be low and his station unfit to reach that distinction, so that he does not rise to that control of which the bodies in their course have not given promise,¹ i.e., a sign, or to which ethics have not aided him,

footnotes: ² Wolff (p. 82, note 2) cites the somewhat similar idea of Maimonides. ³ Dukes ("Ehrensaulen," p. 12, note i) makes mention of the Talmudic thought respecting planetary influence upon the physical conditions of man and upon his fate; in his religio-metaphysical poem, "The Crown of Royalty," Gabirol treats of this in a brilliant, poetic style. Ibn Ezra did not fail to note that Gabirol had fallen under the spell of the "astrological dreaming of his century": cf. Stein (p. 33), and Schmiedl (p. 308, note 3), as well as Schmiedl's entire chapter on this subject (pp. 299-316). ⁴ This thought, frequently expressed by Gabirol (cf. ii. v. iii 13) is often met with in Bahya; the references are to the edition of the חובות הלבבות by Jeliinek (iii., 2, p. 135; ix., i, p. 400; ix., 2, p. 402; iii., 2, p. 137); cf. Brull (p. 74, note 3). ¹ Steinschneider ("Alfarabi," p. 75, note 5).

then the wise and intelligent man ought to expend all his efforts in order to reach the highest dignity which he seeks, in order that it may be, as one of the sages said, "Help the celestial bodies with your souls, even as tilling and irrigating help the seed to grow";² and this occurs naturally through the instrumentality of the earth. He should endeavor to be one of the number of the excellent and through his zeal follow in their steps. Further, he must refine his qualities until they be improved and not employ his senses except when it appears necessary, until he becomes one (of those) who is honorably known and famed for his excellence, for that is worldly happiness. But when man reaches it, his eyes must not cease to gaze wistfully at the attainment of that which is above it, i.e., enduring happiness which he can reach in the intellectual world, the world to come. For this is the highest gift of God to His servants, in addition to the favor which is their common lot as existent creatures.³ The prince David, peace be unto him, had implored that he might attain to the well-being of this world, in saying (Ps. Ixxxvi. 17), "Make with me a covenant for goodness." He also desired to be one of those well fitted to attain the bliss of the world to come, in that he said (Ps. xxxi. 20), "O how great is the goodness which Thou hast laid up for them that fear Thee"; (Ps. xxxvi. 9), "They shall be abundantly satisfied with the fatness of Thy house. " This height cannot be reached by any one save through merit. Thus he asked (Ps. xv. i, 2), "Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle, who shall dwell in thy holy hill?" And the answer is, "He that walketh uprightly and worketh righteousness." Having arrived in the course of our remarks at this stage in the account of man's preeminence, let us direct our attention to the statement of the object of this our work and the method of deriving some advantage therefrom. This will come to pass after we shall have divided the treatise into all its sections as is incumbent upon us. Then will we realize the benefit of it. Thus Solomon the Wise, peace be unto him, has said (Eccles. vii. 27), "Behold this have I found, saith the Preacher, counting one by one to find out the account"; by which he meant to say that when things are brought together, it is necessary to enumerate them. So, also, by properly ordering the discourse, it will be understood.

footnotes: ² Horovitz (pp. 127, 128, notes 105, 106). Maimonides holds that to admit the influence of the planets upon human relations is to limit the freedom of man. The possibility of such limitation of human freedom by planetary influence Gabirol would not be ready to admit, except in some such way as modern freedomists take account of the influences of heredity and environment. Thein ("Der Talmud oder das I'rincip des planetarischen Einflusses," Frag, 1874, p. 65 ft seq.) discusses the position of Maimonides, Albo, Ibn Ezra, and Jehuda ha-Levi in regard to this mystic and unphilosophic teaching. ³ The thought that existence is in itself a mark of favor from God to man, as set forth in this passage, is dwelt upon at greater length in "The Crown of Royalty," and is, according to Sachs (p. 244. and note), emphasized by many of the later moralists.

God, Mighty and Exalted, has created the expanse of the smaller world¹ dependent upon four elements: He places in man blood corresponding to air, yellow gall corresponding to fire, black gall corresponding to earth, and white moisture corresponding to water.² Moreover God, exalted be He, equipped him, i.e., man, with perfectness of form and with every organ complete and not wanting in any respect; and He created within him five senses, as we shall relate. Solomon the Wise alludes to them when he says (Eccl. ix. 11), "I returned and saw under the sun";

footnotes: ¹ There is evidently an omission in the Arabic text, p. 4, line 5; the Hebrew version includes a line omitted through the mistake of an early copyist, who skipped from the former עלי טבאיע ארבע to the latter, thus omitting the intervening line or lines. This Arabic omission is supplied by Kaufmann ("Sinne," pp. 37, 38). ² "Fons Vitas" of Gabirol, Tractate iii. (Guttmann, p. 117, note 3); Dieterici, "Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, 90; and "Logik," p. 103; "Anthropologie der Araber im Zehnten Jahrhundert," Leipzig, 1871 (pp. 4, 42, 189); M. Friedlander, "Essays on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra," London, vol. iv. (p. 24, note 4). This purely Greek conception was speedily incorporated into Jewish teachings. Gabirol's immediate successor in point of time Bahya, follows him here. (Cf. Introduction, p. 13, note 2.) The teaching that man is a microcosm, constituted of the four elements, found its way even into the poetry of the Middle Ages. Cf. a poem of Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra, cited by Sachs (p. 115, and p. 42 of the Hebrew supplement), who refers to an eleventh century exposition of this theory in a Piut of K. Isaac ibn Giiat ("Ritual of Tripoli," p. 92 b).

"seeing" here means to observe carefully, the general term for "seeing" being here used in the place of the specific term, "observing carefully" as in saying, "under the sun," he means whatever the sun encircles.

In the saying, "The race is not to the swift," he hints at the sense of smell, which is (situated in) the nose, because running is impossible except through the inhalation of air from without to cool the natural heat which is within man. The inhalation is accomplished by the sense of the nose, and if there were no nose there could be no breathing, which causes motion.

In saying "Nor is the battle to the strong," he wishes to indicate the sense of hearing; just as we see that war consists of crying and of hearing in battle, as it is said (Ex. xxxii. 17), "There is a noise of war in the camp."

In saying, "Nor yet is bread to the wise," he refers to the sense of taste and the meaning is to be taken literally.

In saying "Nor yet riches to the understanding," he refers to the sense of touch, which is of a kind with the understanding:¹ the latter is of the category of the inner senses, which are concealed in the nature of the soul, as for example, perception, thought, and understanding.

footnotes: ¹ Horovitz appears to hold (p. 140. note 154) that Gabirol follows Aristotle in bringing the sense of touch into relation with the understanding; cf. Dukes ("Phil.." p I2i. note 4).

In saying, "Nor is there favor to men of skill," he wishes to indicate the sense of sight, which does not become knowledge except through prolonged attention to scripture and continuous study of books.² Were it not for the great length involved and our love of conciseness, we would follow up these allusions with clear arguments, (adduced) from syllogistic³ reasoning and the science of oral traditions,¹ in order that they might be easily and simply comprehended. But for those whose faculties are above the ordinary and who are of high-minded purpose, this little will suffice as evidence that the wise prince alluded to naught else in this passage but the visible (outer) senses, and veiled the mention of the hidden (inner) ones.²

footnotes: ² Horovitz (p. 138, note 141) adduces the somewhat similar views of Aristotle and Plato, f. Kaufmann (p. 140). ³ Kiyis is rendered by the Hebrew סברא, "reason." According to Steinschneider ("Alfarabi," pp. 26, 27, notes 21, 22), it is usually translated by the term הקש. ¹ M. Ehrenpreis ("Die Entwickelung der Emanationslehre, "Frankfurt, 1895, p. i, note i) holds that Gabirol's use of this term "das Vorhandensein spekulativ-kabbalistischer Schriften im 10. und n. Jahrh. vennuten lasst," assuming that the Arabic word connotes " spekulativer Kabbala." Munk (p. 283, note 2) insists with much emphasis that Jellinek wrongly renders this term by "la science de la Kabbale." adding "II est evident que le mot הקבלה signifie ici simplement tradition, ou ce qui est admis sur 1'autorite traditionelle. L'original arabe d'ailleurs ne laisse aucun doute a cet egard." Cf. Dukes (p. 103). B. Zimmels ("Leo Ilebraeus, ein jiidischer Philosoph der Renaissance," Leipzig, 1886, pp. 57, note i; 58, note i; 68, notes i and 2) maintains Munk (p. 527) was similarly mistaken in believing Leo Hebraeus to be "sous les auspices de la Kabbale," the mistake arising from the use of the term קבלה which Leo expressly uses as does Gabirol, in the signification, the "ancient Hebrew tradition." The term קבלה is used with the same meaning by Saadya, Bahya, and Ibn Daud, vide Bacher (p. 6, note 4; page 40, note 3; p. 59, note 4; p. 145, note 2). Stossel (p. 51) goes so far as to say, "Gabirol ist der Fortsetzer des Buches Jezirah und der Vorarbeiter des Zohar." This view has met with little or no acceptance, save in the case of Isaac Myer (author of "Qabbalah, the Philosophy of Ibn Gebirol, the Qabbalah and the Zohar," Philadelphia, 1888), whose voluminous work is written in support of the theory that Gabirol was an outspoken Kabbalist. Mr. Myer calls "The Crown of Royalty" a "kosmic Qabbalistic hymn," and the "Fons Vitoe" "a philosophical Qabbalistic work," "one of the earliest exposures of the secrets of the speculative Qabbalah." ² Quoted by Kaufmann ("Sinne," p. 47, note 32), in the chapter treating of the "inner and outer senses."

If a man be wise, he will employ them in the right place and restrain them from everything in connection with which he ought not to use them. Let him rather be like a skilful physician,³ who prepares prescriptions, taking of every medicine a definite quantity; thus the ingredients vary in quantity ; he uses of one the weight of a Danik, and of the other the weight of a Kirat; and so on according to his estimate of their respective effects. He will not be satisfied until there be mixed in with it something which will keep it from doing harm (to the person to whom it is administered), and all this must be calculated.

footnotes: ³ Guttmann ("Saadya," p. 284, note 2, and "Gabirol," p. 18, note i) points out the similarity of this passage to "Emunoth," x., p. 159 (ed. Slucky), and "Die Propadeutik der Araber," Berlin, 1865 (pp. 44 and 163).

Since this is so, man ought to consider carefully the qualities which belong to his senses and not employ them except when it is necessary; for God, exalted be He, has so constituted them in man that he can wisely order them, since through them he guards the normal condition of his life. By their means he sees colors, hears sounds, tastes food (flavors), smells odors, distinguishes between hard and soft, and all other things which are necessary to his life; and many which are useful we will mention when we commence (the subject), please God. We will now describe the senses and the various advantages to be derived from their use and the necessity of refraining from the use of them when they would cause harm.

We hold that the first and foremost of the senses is that of the eye, since its position with regard to the body is like that of the sun to the universe.¹ It is a sense which never fails to perceive an object without (the lapse of) time, i.e., its perception of that which is near to it is as quick as its perception of that which is far from it; nor does any time elapse between its perception of the near and its perception of the far,² as is the case with the other senses. The eye alights upon its objects of perception as long as it is open.³ Therefore, sleep is impossible unless it be closed. How wondrous is the saying of a philosopher with regard to the sense of the eye!" The soul has spiritual tints, which sometimes become apparent in the motion of the eyelid."⁴ Again he said, "Keep watch over the sense of sight: verily it may lead to various kinds of wrong: by some of its motions it may testify to your (having) pride and haughtiness, and by others to your possession of meekness and humility.¹ Therefore, compel it to make the very best movements and restrain it from the most ignoble." "Furthermore," he said, "social intercourse does not exist for the pleasure of the eye, but the enjoyment of the mind." The learned man will understand this saying. How beautiful is the agreement of this utterance with the word of God, exalted and magnified be He (Num. xv. 39), "Do ye not seek after your own heart and your own eyes."

footnotes: ¹ Cf. Horovitz (p. 138, note 140). ² Cf. Kaufmann ("Sinne," pp. 117, 118, note 55, and p. 120, note 61), and Horovitz. (p. 13;. note 1.4.1). ³ Horovitz (p. 139, note 143). ⁴ Platonic doctrine. Cf. Horovitz (p. 139. note 142), and Dukes ("Phil.," p. 78, note i). ¹ Platonic Dukes (pp. 97, 98) shows the thought, "Humility dwells in the eye," to be Aristotelian. Cf. "Ethics," i. 3, where two maxims of Aristotle are quoted in the paragraph, which restates the thesis, that pride and meekness are closely related to the sense of sight.

The sense of hearing is next in point of importance. Though the effect of this sense upon the soul is more readily felt than that of sight,² man does not heed it as he does the eye. Under good training, with reference to this sense, is included man's refraining from listening to indecent things, and not judging in regard to the pleasant tones which he hears according to their sound, but according to their meaning and intent. One ought not to be ensnared by what he hears, as the bird is ensnared by the sounds to which it inclines with admiration; and one ought to know of the places where it is necessary to pay good heed and those wherein it is not fitting to listen at all, as he of whom it is said (Isa. xxxiii. 15), "that stoppeth his ears from the hearing of blood."

footnotes: ² Kaufmann (p. 141, note 4).

The sense of smell follows the sense of hearing, because a sound is felt in the air; and it is of lesser moment than the sense of hearing. Accordingly, there is less need of training it, because it entails not (the possibility of) obedience or revolt. As for taste, though it be, in degree, below the senses aforementioned, still the manner of training it is more important, for the body cannot exist without it, as it can exist without the others. The way to train it is, keep it from that which is forbidden, and give it free rein with regard to that which is permissible. Reason¹ should exercise rule over desire in all this. The first instance wherein you can evidence your mastery over your desire is in eating and in drinking, just as it was in this regard that man first sinned.

footnotes: ¹ "Plato looks upon the sensual desires as the baser portion of the soul. As such it is intended to be ruled by the nobler, and its virtue lies consequently in obedience to the Reason" (Kilter, "Ancient Philosophy." vol. ii., p. 411).

Touch follows the sense of taste,² and is very similar to it. Its pleasures are peculiar to those members of the body in which the humors are well balanced. There is no occasion for the reasoning soul therein, except to guide the body. As to the manner of exercising it, thou must know that these desires are ills of the body, which thou must treat, and diseases which thou must heal. Think not that it is characteristic of the intellectual soul. Do not suppose that complete happiness and perfect blessedness are to be attained thereby, as one attains to excellences, in virtue of which man is adjudged deserving of honor in matters pertaining to the intellect.

footnotes: ² Horovitz (p 140, note 151).

As we have entered upon a description of the senses, let us regard each of them in the light of a genus and then mention the species comprised under it, namely, the qualities of man. Then let us name every individual in the species and describe its useful and harmful qualities and the method of effecting its improvement.

If now we proceed to represent the qualities of the senses according to number, the result is that every sense has four qualities. We would attribute, firstly, to the sense of sight four, and a like number to the other senses, so that the sum would amount to twenty qualities for the five senses. Accordingly, we assign to the eye Pride, Meekness, Pudency, and Impudence.³ Our reason for putting pride in connection with the sense of sight is clear, as has been remarked above, while treating of it; also because thou perceivest the haughty glance of the proud and boastful of spirit. The very reverse of that we behold in the lowly of spirit, that is, meekness. Scripture says with reference to the unduly lofty (Isa. ii. 11), "The lofty looks of men shall be humbled," and again (id. v. 15), "The eyes of the lofty shall be humbled," and so forth.

footnotes: ³ Maimonides appears to me to have been familiar with this enumeration of good and evil qualities. Cf. Wolff (pp 6 and 20).

The use here of (the word) "eyes" shows that the quality of pride is to be attributed to the sense of sight. Of meekness it is said (Hab. i. 13), "Thou art of humbler eyes than to behold evil," and so forth. With regard to the impudent, thou observest in most cases that his eyes stare and he is indifferent to shame; thus it is said of them (Isa. iii. 9), "The shew of their countenance doth witness against them." Thus thou wilt notice that the eyes of the unrighteous, the impudent, are troubled and restless, like those of whom it is said (Job xi. 20), "The eyes of the wicked shall fail." Again it is said of the impudent (Jer. v. 3), "They have made their faces harder than a rock." On the other hand, thou wilt find that the prudent man lowers his eyes so that he may merit, by reason of this, the abundant favor of God and men, as it is said (Prov. iii. 34), "He giveth grace unto the lowly"; and as we, with the help of God, exalted be He, will explain very clearly in the successive chapters. This favor can be acquired only by means of (the faculty of) sight, having regard to him that sees and that which is seen. Thus it was said of Moses our Master, peace be unto him (Num. xii. 3), "The man Moses was very meek." Previously it was said, corresponding to this (Ex. xi. 3), "The man Moses was very great."

The sense of hearing constitutes a genus embracing four species, namely, four qualities -- Love, Hate, Mercy, and Hard-heartedness (cruelty). One has need of great precision in determining the relation of these four qualities to the sense of hearing. Even though we do not make our exposition thoroughly clear, nevertheless men of understanding will be content with hints and allusions. He ought not to be blamed who brings forward a fraction of the truth for not gathering together the whole. Perhaps the reader will admit as excuse for me, in that I have not succeeded in bringing together the metaphysical and logical proofs and the Scriptural examples as far as I have gone, the fact that human power is but slight, especially in the case of a man like me, who is always greatly troubled and who does but scantily realize his hopes.

In some places in the Bible (a mention of) the hearing occurs, followed by urging; thus the expression (Deut. vi. 4, 5), "Hear, O Israel," and after that it is said, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God," etc. Furthermore (Gen. xxiv. 52), "When Abraham's servant heard "; it is said immediately following, "He who worshiped the Lord, bowing himself to the earth "; and again (Gen. xxix. 13), "And it came to pass that when Laban heard the tidings, he embraced him and kissed him."

Hearing is also used in connection with acceptance and approval, which are at the basis of love; thus it is written (Ex. xxiv. 7), "We will do and we will hear." The performance of a thing is due to the love of a man therefore; thus it is said (Gen. xxvii. 4), "Make me savoury meat, such as I love."

Sometimes satisfaction and cheerfulness follow upon hearing: thus it is said (Lev. x. 20), "When Moses heard that he was content," just as anger ensues in the absence of assent and hearkening, as (Ex. xvi. 20), "Notwithstanding, they hearkened not unto Moses." ..."And Moses was wroth with them." Hatred also results from hearing, as thou must know from the case of Esau, of whom it is said (Gen. xxvii. 34), "When Esau heard," and then follows (id. xxvii. 41), "Esau hated Jacob." Mercy is known to result from "hearing"; thus God said (Ex. xxii. 26), "I will hear, for I am merciful." It is said of the righteous dead (Prov. i. 33), "Whoso hearkeneth unto me shall dwell safely." In contrast to this, it is said of the unrighteous (Job xv. 21), "A sound of fright is in his ears: in peace the despoiler shall come upon him," and so forth. Hard-heartedness results from the want of assent; thus it is said of Pharaoh in many places (Ex. ix. 12), "The Lord hardened the heart of Pharaoh and he hearkened not." A hard-hearted people is called (Deut. xxviii. 49), "A nation whose tongue thou shalt not understand, neither shalt thou hearken unto what it speaketh," and so forth.

The sense of smell also commands four qualities -- Anger, Good-will, Jealousy, and Wide-awakedness. Anger is attributed to the sense of smell, as it is said (Jud. xiv. 19), "And his nose (anger) was kindled": anger, indignation, and wrath appear mostly in connection with the nose, as it is said (Dan. iii. 19), "Then was Nebuchadnezzar full of fury, and the form of his nose (visage) was changed." Good-will consists in the tranquility of the thoughts, which are in the brain, and it is not altered by an "illness" of the sense of smell, though the nearest among the senses affecting it. Concerning good-will it is said (Prov. xvi. 15), "In the light of the king's nose (countenance) is life, and his favor is as a cloud of the latter rain."

Jealousy and wide-awakedness are of the sense of the nose, and jealousy is a branch of anger: thus it is written (Prov. vi. 34), "For jealousy is the rage of a man." Thus becomes clear the association of the heated temperament, which is anger, with jealousy in the matter of this sense. Wide-awakedness consists in the movements of a man and results from the ordering of the organs of breathing, which are pivotal to the sense of smell, as we have remarked above in the section devoted to the exposition of the passage beginning with "The race is not to the swift."

The sense of taste includes as its species four qualities, namely, Joy (Cheerfulness), Grief (Apprehensiveness), Penitence, and Tranquility. Dost thou not see that the greatest pleasure is derived through eating and drinking, which is attained by means of the sense of taste? Hast thou not heard of the saying on the part of Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 25), "Bring it here unto me and I will eat of my son's venison"; and also (Ruth iii. 7), "And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, his heart was merry." Speech, consisting as it does of words, which are of a kind with (the objects of) taste, sometimes gives rise to joy; thus it is said (Prov. xv. 23), "A man hath joy by the answer of his mouth." Opposed to this we find that grief follows upon the failure to exercise this sense, as it is said (i Sam. i. 7), "She wept and did not eat." It is also related of Jonathan (id. xx. 34), "He did eat no meat the second day of the month, for he was grieved for David." Many such expressions are used with reference to Saul and others.

As to the quality of penitence, the reason for referring it to (the sense of) taste is that contrition and penitence are felt for what has gone before, and one denies himself different kinds of enjoyment, which are rendered possible by means of the taste, as it is said (Hos. xiv. i), "O Israel, return." The attributing also of the quality of tranquility to (the sense of) taste is seen in the saying of Sennecharib (II. Kings xviii. 31), "Eat ye every man of his own vine, and every one of his fig-tree;" and again (Jud. xviii. 7), "And they saw the people that were therein, how they dwelt in safety."

The sense of touch also stands in relation to four qualities, and these are Liberality, Niggardliness, Valor, and Cowardice. Liberality in connection with touch is possible only through the action of the hand. Liberality consists in open-handedness, even as niggardliness is but close-fistedness. With regard to giving, it is said (Prov. xviii. 16), "A man's gift maketh room for him, and before great men it will lead him." Of niggardliness, it is said (Prov. xiii. 11), "He that gathereth by close hand will increase." That valor is in connection with the touch is evident from the connection between seizing hold of (something) and the hand; thus it is said (Jud. v. 26), "Her hand she put forth to the nail." In opposition to this, it is said of cowardice (Isa. xxxv. 3), "Strengthen ye weak hands"; and again (Ezek. vii. 17), "All hands shall become feeble," and so forth.

It having been made clear that all the qualities of the soul are related to the five senses, let us now return to our first theme (the elucidation of) which we have stated to be the purpose of this book. Seeing that most men are not sufficiently versed in the ruling of their qualities to enable them to regulate these according to ethical standards and a rational method, we have resolved to write a satisfactory treatise concerning this, which shall contain an account in extenso of the qualities, the ways in which to use them, and the mode in which to bring about their improvement.¹ In addition to this I have met with the persistent importunity of one of my friends, who desires this as a memorial and preparation for himself and for me, in the event that conditions change in the course of time, places become disturbed and men alter. He desires also that the relationship of the qualities to the senses should be set forth. Before explaining this at all, I will make it clear to him by means of a geometrical diagram and visible proofs.

footnotes: ¹ Cf. the words of Bahya (iii. 10 and iii. i), who has the same purpose in view; Brull (p. 79, note i).

Then let us first sketch a diagram of the four temperaments, which we have mentioned above. We have drawn it at the beginning of our work, in the form of a figure, so that the imagination may be quick to grasp it and the senses ready to comprehend it. We have indicated with reference to every temperament whatever are its elements, and then joined to every temperament five qualities, in accordance with the requirements of the calculation. We have joined them to whatever quality they have, in preference to any other, after having classified them in the diagram, giving those which are hot and cold, and to which of the elements they belong, and likewise those that are moist (humid) and dry (arid) and their conjunctions and disjunctions -- all this in the diagram. Of God we pray that He may put an end to the opposition (clamor) of those who, on the strength of their knowledge, enter upon a discussion with us, and that He silence the mouths of those who argue with us in their folly. I have no reason to trust that their envy will not lead them to attempt to humiliate us; yet will I not be deterred by their disturbance, nor dismayed by their brutishness. The Lord sufficeth as my portion, and in Him I trust, for He is a shield to those taking refuge with Him, the surest protection to those seeking after His help, as it is written (Lam. iii. 25), "The Lord is good unto them that wait for Him." Verily, I am innocent of that wherewith they charge me if they speak haughtily: I am too pious to be the victim of their pride, even though they occupy the foremost place, for there is no iniquity in my hand. Therefore will I bear their attacks; but I do say (Ps. xxxviii. 21), "They hate me only because I pursue the good."

God knows that I have not admitted into my work anything except my own thoughts and writing, nor have I busied myself with anything outside of my own ideas.¹ To those who have superior souls and lofty aspirations, their strong affection for our discourse will point out that which we have in mind; and if they alight upon any mistakes in the course of it, they will allow that my excuse is clear and evident, since in its chief parts there is good sense.

footnotes: ¹ Brull (p. 71) attaches too much importance to these words, as if they proved that Gabirol made no use of the writings of his predecessors. I take this statement to be nothing more than a disavowal of plagiarism, such as is commonly met with in the mediaeval writers. Cf. N Weisslovitz, "Prinz und Derwisch," Munchen. 1890, p. 15, note I.

This is a copy of the first diagram, which represents the elements and the temperaments:

We have arranged to refer every temperament to its element and every quality to its temperament,¹ as required by the argument, which we shall make clear in another place with the help of the Almighty, the Sufficient, may He be exalted. Having sketched this diagram as just explained, we would say here that the sum of the human qualities which we can enumerate is twenty, of which some are praiseworthy per se, and others blameworthy per se. Whosoever wishes to attain to the improvement of his qualities must pursue in his own person the goodly course so that the praiseworthy qualities come to be to him excellences, unto which he must accustom himself, from which he must not separate from the time of his youth, and whereunto he must apply himself step by step and little by little. Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxii. 6), "Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it." The philosopher hath said, "Intelligence is a gift, moral conduct is an acquirement, but habit is master over all things."

footnotes: ¹ We meet with the same thought in Jehuda ha-Levi; cf. Dukes ("Phil.," pp. 74 and 127, notes 2 and 3).

Know thou that all the qualities of man, of the possession of which he gives evidence at the period of his youth and manhood, are in him during his infancy and boyhood: though it be not in his power to manifest them, they are nevertheless within him in potential, (if) not in actu. Thou wilt observe that in some boys the quality of prudency manifests itself, and in others impudence; some incline to enjoyment, others aspire to virtue, and still others are disposed to vices; these qualities above mentioned and others similar to them being among those of the animal soul; and when men reach unto the stage of maturity, the strength of the rational soul displays its activity and it directs him that possesses it to a proper understanding with regard to the improvement of the qualities, since it is not the practice of the animal soul to improve these. Now in addition to this proposition being susceptible of proof, it has been handed down to us by tradition in the words of the Saint (Prov. xx. 11), "Even a child is known by his doings." As to the youths whom baseness overcomes, it is possible to transform them into a noble state as long as the limits of childhood have not been passed; but if they overstep the boundaries of youth and reach maturity, and continue to remain in this condition, it becomes difficult to set them along a good course, just as a sprig may be made to stand erect before it is full grown; but when it has become a tree, it is difficult to bend or move it. From this thou seest that most men when they have reached maturity cannot be turned aside from the course which in their youth they pursued, whereas most men can be directed between the periods of childhood and youth unto good habits.¹ This is the simple meaning of (Prov. xxii. 6), "Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old," etc.

footnotes: ¹ Rosin ("Maimonides," p. 5, note 4, and p. 65, note 3) suggests the following parallels: "Ueber die ethische Bildungsfahigkeit der Jugend," "Arist., N. E., ii. 2, im Xamen Plato's nach dessen De Leg. ii.; aber auch Aristot. ohne Nennung Plato's, N. E. ii. i. Schl. und x. 10; dazu vgl. Maim, zu Abot i. 14."

Thus, too, our Rabbis say, "At twenty years of age, one dies with it." It is impossible that evil-doing should belong to the rational soul by nature, for this would not be in accordance with wisdom. The Deity hath created the soul pure, stainless, and simple, as saith the sage (Ecc. vii. 29), "This only have I found, that God hath made man upright." Whatever results therefrom that is not good, is the work of the vegetative soul,² i.e., the natural impulse. A philosopher has said that, "He who clings to good qualities in order to enjoy by means of them the pleasures of his senses and (to satisfy) the necessities of his body, does not understand their true value; but he understands them who seeks after them, because he recognizes their merit and usefulness and knows that death caused by following them is better than life, based upon their opposites; and he who keeps his thoughts away from the base, lifts them up to the good."

footnotes: ² This threefold division of the soul, vegetative, animal, and rational (cf. the preceding paragraph of the text), is discussed at greater length in the "Eons Vitae"; cf. Munk (p. 200), Rosin (p 46, note i), and Horovitz (p. 115, note 77, and p. 117, note 82). This same division occurs in Israeli (cf. Fried, p. 37) and Kalonymos b. Kalonym; cf. J. Landsberger, "Iggereth Haale Chajjim," Darmstadt, 1882 (p. 172, and note on p. 266).

In the measure in which man separates himself from baseness does he near God, may He be exalted; and in the measure in which he nears baseness, does he separate himself from Him. Now in regard to the twenty qualities of man, David, peace be upon him, points to them and alludes to their origin in the "Psalm of David" (Ps. xxxvii. 1) "Contend not with thyself because of evil-doers." Of some of these he clearly treats, as may be gathered from the literal interpretation of the verse; others he indicates merely by allusions: viz., he enjoins serving God, by cultivating qualities that are praise-worthy, and inhibits the exercise of the blameworthy qualities. Furthermore, he condemns the course of those who depart from the right way, as it should be observed, and praises the course of those who rightly habituate themselves to good practice.

In saying at first, "Contend not with thyself because of evildoers," he would put an inhibition upon envy of the wicked; for, if man does not envy them, he is necessarily bound to hate them. Moreover, he warns against envy of them and jealousy of their condition, these being his words (Ps. xxxvii. I), "Be not envious against the workers of iniquity." He enjoins trustfulness in the Lord and confidence in Him, in saying (id., xxxvii. 3), "Trust in the Lord and do good."

Furthermore, he alludes to the exercise of the qualities of prudency and modesty (id., xxxvii. 3), "So shalt thou dwell in the land and feed in faithfulness." His saying, first, "So shalt thou dwell in the land," and then "and feed in faithfulness," shows that long life on earth is the result of cultivating humility and prudency, which he calls "faith," as thou knowest from the saying (Num. xii. 7), "He is faithful in all my house," and that which preceded in the description of modesty. That which we have said of the meriting of life, even long life on earth, corresponds to the expression (Ps. xxxvii. 11), "The meek shall inherit the earth." In saying (id., 4), "Delight thyself also in the Lord," he alludes to the quality of joy, which the righteous exercises in that service of the Lord, wherein he delights. Thus he says elsewhere (Ps. xxxii. 11), "Be glad in the Lord and rejoice, O ye righteous"; again, he says of the season of gladsome tidings (Isa. Ixi. 10), "I will greatly rejoice in the Lord." In saying (Ps. xxxvii. 4), "He shall give thee the desires of thine heart," he alludes to the quality of yearning which is love, for God satisfies the yearning of the righteous, as is promised them in the saying (Ps. xx. 6), "The Lord will fulfill all thy desires."

The words, "Cease from anger" are to be taken literally; they forbid giving way to violent anger and wrath. To "Cease from anger and forsake wrath" requires, first, the uprooting thereof, and, second, penitence for what has gone before. "The meek shall inherit the earth." These are the lowly, viewing the verse literally. In saying (Ps. xxxvii. 12), "The wicked plotteth against the just and gnasheth upon him with his teeth," he alludes to the use which the wicked make of impudence and recklessness. In saying (id., 13), "The Lord shall laugh at him," he means that He will destroy the impudent one and cause the righteous to rejoice in his destruction; thus it is said (Ps. Iviii. 11), "The righteous shall rejoice when he seeketh vengeance." In saying (id., 14), "The wicked have unsheathed the sword," he alludes to the fervor and the daring which they (the wicked) display. In saying (id., 14), "To slay such as be of upright conduct," he alludes to the quality of hard-heartedness which prevails over all their (other) qualities. In saying (id., 15), "Their bows shall be broken," he hints at the quality of pride; similarly it is said of a "brazen-faced nation" (Jer. vi. 23), "They shall lay hold of bow and spear." In saying (id., 17), "The arms of the wicked shall be broken," he means that the quality of faint-heartedness takes possession of them when their youth and strength are enfeebled, so that they cannot raise their arms at all. In saying (id., 21), "The wicked borroweth and payeth not," he alludes to the quality of niggardliness. In saying (id., 21), "The righteous showeth mercy and giveth," he has in mind the two qualities which dwell in the soul of the righteous, namely, mercy and liberality.

Concluding his enumeration of these qualities, he seals them with the quality of good-will. We would say that when man pursues the right course in reference to these twenty qualities, i.e., in the manner in which we have described the exercise of those that are praiseworthy, and the putting aside of those that are blameworthy, then God becomes well pleased with him, as it is said (id., 23), "The steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord." Let not man suppose that the passage, "The steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord" implies any compulsion¹ to obedience (to God) or disobedience; (it does point) however, to the bliss and misery (which are their respective reward and punishment). In saying, "The steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord," he means that God created his soul perfect, not wanting in anything; and when it inclines to virtue, to wholesome practice and good conduct, the expression "are ordered" implies that he merits the approval of God; and this is meant by the expression (id., 23), "And He delighteth in his way." As a result of what we have said, it is clear that David, peace be upon him, in these hints, gives a description of the way in which to improve the qualities of the human soul and to accustom it to virtuous practice in the same manner as Solomon the Wise has done in his writings, wherein he urges (men) to effect their improvement in every possible manner, as I shall indicate, please God, exalted may He be.

footnotes: ¹ Thus briefly Gabirol may be said to urge the doctrine of free-will, and to express his opposition to the Asharitic teachings in respect of predestination. Cf. Maimonides (Wolff, p. 55 et seq. and pp. 94, 95, notes 36, 37), who acknowledges the influence exerted by the physical temperament, which predisposes, without predetermining, the soul to certain lines of action and modes of being. Maimonides proceeds to demonstrate the futility of commanding, instructing, rewarding or punishing him who lacks "freedom of choice." Wolff (p. 94, note 36) is right in saying that the doctrine of the freedom of the will (בחירה) is one of the fundamental principles of Judaism. He cites Philo and Maimonides, the latter closely follows Aristotle; cf. Introduction (p. n, note i), Rosin (pp. 167, 168), and Dukes (pp. 57-62). Saadya devotes the fourth chapter of his "Emunoth weDeoth" to the advocacy of the doctrine of free-will; cf. Guttmann (Saadya, pp. 163-174). Bahya devotes the eighth section of the third chapter of his "Hoboth ha-lebaboth" to an exposition of his understanding of the freedom of will with which man is endowed; vide Kaufmann in loco. According to Frankel-Grun (chap. ii. pp. 35-41, and Kusari, v. 20. 25). freedom of the will constitutes one of the most important bases of religion in the judgment of Jehuda ha-Levi. Joseph ibn Zaddik is likewise an exponent of this doctrine; cf. Jellinek (" l)er Mikrokosmos," p. 60) , and Rosin ("Maimonides," p. 18, notes 4 and 5). According to Rosin (" Maimonides," pp. 23, 24), Abraham ibn Daud is no less pronounced in his advocacy of the freedom of the will, as well as Abraham ibn Ezra (p. 73, note 4). An admirable survey of the question is given by Rosin (" Maimonides," pp. 62-76). According to Joel ("Die Religionsphilosophie des Lewi ben Gerson," p. 54, and "Milhamot Adonai," tractate iii., chap. 4), Gersonides was obliged, without acknowledging it, to sacrifice a part of divine omniscience in order to save human freedom. Hasdai may be said to be the one notable protestant against the freedom of the will; cf. M. Joel, "Don Chasdai Creskas' religionsphilosophische Lehren" (Breslau, 1866, pp. 46, 47), "Or Adonai" (tractate ii., part 5, chap. 4), and Ph. Bloch ("Die Willensfreiheit von Chasdai Kreskas," Munchen, 1879). Moses of Narbonne wrote a treatise, המאמר בבחירה, in order to disprove the fatalistic doctrine expounded in the work of a contemporary, אגרת הנזירה, cf. Beer (pp. 114, 2, 3, 40-42). This entire problem has found fairly comprehensive treatment at the hands of Stein, who shows Saadya, Bahya, Jehuda ha-Levi, Abraham ibn Daud, Maimonides, Gersonides, Moses of Narbonne, Aaron of Nicomedia, and Joseph Albo to have been at one in their acceptance of what may truly be called the Jewish dogma of the freedom of the will. Evidently overlooking the passage to which our note is appended, Stein confessedly omits to treat of Gabirol (p. 22), "da er in seinem einseitigen Neuplatonismus unserer Frage . . . gar keine Beachtung widmet." Cf. Schmiedl (pp. 24-26). L. Knoller ("Das Problem der Willensfreiheit in der alteren jtldischen Religionsphilosophie des Mittelalters." I.cip/ig. 1884) goes over the same ground as Stein, taking up in turn Saadya. Uahyn. ha-Levi, Ibn Zaddik, Ibn Daud, and Maimonides, but likewise omits to discuss Gabirol's view with reference to the freedom of the will, giving his reason for the omission (p. 15, note I).

Following our argument, we shall proceed to describe the method of the diagram, which we have drawn, of the senses and the qualities, and (in the course of the description), we will explain how the qualities originate in the senses, uniting every individual to its species, and every species to its genus, i.e., we will make clear the nature of the qualities derived from the sense of sight and their quantity; so also those derived from the sense of hearing, and the remaining senses in the same way. It will be a tabular diagram, so that it may easily be grasped by beginners in the study of this science, and those desirous of procuring the benefit thereof, those asking help of God in order that they may bring about their improvement, with the help of abstract (exact) and concrete (worldly) sciences.

This is the form of the tabular diagram, which is devised in order to illustrate the branching forth of the twenty qualities from the five senses.

Sight,¹

footnotes: ¹ This classification is not unlike the one to be found in Dieterici ("Logik," p. 148), which gives a list of praiseworthy and blameworthy "Charackterzlige," such as "Hochmuth, Gier, Neid."

Pride,

Meekness,

Prudency,

Impudence,

Hearing,

Love,

Hate,

Mercy,

Hard-heartedness (Cruelty),

Smell,

Wrath,

Good-will (Suavity),

Jealousy,

Wideawakedness,

Taste,

Touch,

Joy (Cheerfulness),

Liberality,

Grief (Apprehensiveness),

Niggardliness,

Tranquility,

Valor,

Penitence (Remorse),

Cowardice.

Having attained what we desired in the matter of the representation of the figures, let us now conclude this introduction to our work by enumerating its divisions and its chapters. We have named our work,

"The Improvement of the Qualities"

for the benefit largely of the masses, in order that they may gain a knowledge of the nature of the noble, and understand this matter through various methods of expression (illustration). We have introduced in the following whatever logical and demonstrable arguments have occurred to us; and, furthermore, as far as we are able, have adduced Scriptural verses. Nor, after first giving these, do I see any harm in briefly citing some utterances of the wise;² and I shall follow this by adorning (what I have said) with "rejez" verses of litterateurs, and some verses from the poets, and anything uncommon that occurs to me, and whatever else I can recall, so that my book may be complete in all its parts. Perhaps the reader of this will, in his magnanimity and highmindedness, excuse my not having exhausted my theme, for my aim in composing this book was not to benefit him who surpasses me in talent at this time, since I do not lay claim, God forbid, to superiority in any department of science. Verily, the fruit which I have plucked from wisdom is my knowledge that I am not wise, that I must not abandon the counsel of my contemporaries, and that I must acknowledge to them my weakness.

footnotes: ² Cf. Bahya; Briill (p. 77, note i).

I would be, in that case, as the saying goes, "as one who tends a garden well when it is in its full bloom; or like one who heaps up brocaded stuffs boastfully in the presence of those who make them." The clearest ground for excusing me, in that I have not exhausted my theme, and the surest reason for omitting to blame me for not having completed it to the very end,¹ is that we live at the present time amid evil and distress, an uninterrupted succession of troubles and disquieting circumstances; but I complain not. Despite this, I do not cease to praise our Creator, exalted may He be, for the grace which He has vouchsafed to us, and for having enlightened our understanding and our judgment, causing us to find the way in which to comprehend something of the sciences.

footnotes: ¹ Despite his voluntary acknowledgment of incompleteness, it is interesting to note the critical remark of Abraham ibn Hasdai (as pointed out by Steinschneider, "H.U.," p. 342), respecting Gabirol's "Ethics"; מאזני צדק ed. J. Goldenthal, Leipzig and Paris, 1839, Preface p.3. והחכם גבור הלשון ר' שלמה בן גבירול חבר חבור יקר מאד וקראו תקון מדות הנפש אבל הלך בו על דרך הקצור כמו כן ולא השלימו על הראוי לפי דעת המשכילים. Cf. Rosin (p. 166, note 1) and Dukes (p. 119, note 2 and "Ehrensaulen," p. 11).

I have divided my work into five parts, every part containing four chapters, which makes a total of twenty chapters, the number contained in the diagram. To every part I have joined the sense belonging to it, and to every sense whatever qualities belong to it. These are the parts of the work, to wit, five, corresponding to the five senses already mentioned.

PART I. The sense of sight, containing four chapters. Chapter I., treating of the quality of pride. Chapter II., treating of the quality of meekness, and urging the exercise thereof. Chapter III., treating of prudency and modesty. Chapter IV., treating of impudence and the refraining therefrom.

PART II. The sense of hearing, comprising four chapters. Chapter I., treating of love and the methods of exercising it. Chapter II., treating of hate, the thrusting aside thereof, and the abandonment of any leaning toward it. Chapter III., treating of the quality of mercy and compassion, the praise of those possessed of it, and the encouragement to choose it. Chapter IV., treating of the quality of hard-heartedness and the relinquishment of any leaning toward it.

PART III. The sense of taste, comprising four chapters. Chapter I., treating of the quality of joy and the methods of exercising it. Chapter II., treating of grief and consolation for sorrow. Chapter III., treating of tranquility. Chapter IV., treating of penitence and guarding against (the need of) it.

PART IV. The sense of smell, containing four chapters. Chapter I., treating of the quality of anger and wrath. Chapter II., treating of good-will and cheerfulness. Chapter III., treating of jealousy and envy. Chapter IV., treating of the quality of wide-awakedness.

PART V. The sense of touch, embracing four chapters: thus completing the twenty chapters of the book. Chapter I., treating of liberality and generosity. Chapter II., treating of the quality of niggardliness and the dispraise thereof. Chapter III., treating of valor and the exercise thereof. Chapter IV., treating of cowardice and the guarding against it.

Having finished numbering the parts of the book and its chapters, let us now begin to explain it all, with the help of God, exalted may He be. We pray that He lead us in the paths of rectitude, and by His grace bring us near unto the ways of uprightness. Thus His Saint besought Him (Ps. xxv. 5), "Lead me in Thy truth."