דבר אל בני ישראל, “speak to the Children of Israel;” Nachmanides writes that the reason the name of Aaron has not been mentioned in this paragraph is that in this paragraph the Torah did not mention the additional sacrifices, מוספים, which are offered on every one of the festivals mentioned here. The Torah contents itself with writing –in a general statement- והקרבתם אשה לה', “you are to offer fire-offerings to Hashem.” The details are spelled out only in Numbers chapter 28-29. The reason this has been delayed until there is that by then the details of the occupation of the land of Israel, the key to how to distribute the various parts of the land had been spelled out, and basically, the additional offerings are applicable in the central location where the Tabernacle/Temple would stand and the Israelites would have to make their pilgrimages to that location to honour the festival. In a manner of speaking, these מוספים represent acknowledgment of Hashem having given us our daily bread in the land of Israel. Although at this time, the land had not yet been conquered, the Torah in verses 9-22 speaks about offerings which could not possibly be brought prior to the land having been conquered, seeing that the ingredients are largely produce of that land, the message is that the legislation in the Torah being discussed here is for the duration, throughout the generations. It is noteworthy that the Sabbath, a day that is not connected to calendar considerations, is mentioned as part of these מועדים. The reason is to show that part of this legislation, such as the Sabbath, is capable of being honoured in the performance already immediately. The fact that after having mentioned the Sabbath the Torah reverts to telling the halachic authorities of the people אשר תקראו אותם במועדם, “the festivals that you have to proclaim as such at their appointed times,” makes the distinction between the Sabbath on the one hand, and the festivals on the other hand, quite clear. The reason that the Sabbath is introduced with the words אלה מועדי ה', “these are the appointed festivals of Hashem, etc.” in the plural mode is that the Sabbath occurs so frequently. It is reported in the name of Rabbi Chiya (hasefardi) that when mentioning the Sabbath the words מועדי ה' occur before the words אשר תקראו אותם, “that you are to proclaim,” whereas in connection with the festivals the words אשר תקראו אותם occur after the words מועדי ה'. This is a clear hint that unless the dates of the festivals have been publicly proclaimed in advance, these festivals i.e. their legal status, remains in doubt. It is necessary for the Highest Court of the land to declare the first day of that month as such in order for us to know when the dates mentioned as festivals do occur. Nachmanides mentions further that the words אלה מועדי ה' אשר תקראו אותם וגו' refer to what follows, [not as in Genesis 24, or Exodus 6,19 and many others where the word אלה sums up what had been reported before then. Ed.] This is the reason why the Torah felt compelled to repeat this line seeing it had interrupted its narrative with mention of the Sabbath. There is an essential difference between observing the Sabbath and observing the festivals, as on the Sabbath any manner of מלאכה, creative kind of activity, is prohibited, whereas on the festivals only activities defined as מלאכת עבודה, “work typically performed by slaves, servants,” are forbidden. This enables us to cook, fry, and use fire on the festivals. There is a further allusion in the text that when such a festival day occurs on the Sabbath, the rules pertaining to the festival do not supersede those of the Sabbath and all the activities normally prohibited on the Sabbath are then also prohibited on the day that is both Sabbath and part of the festival. We find a similar syntax in the Torah when the Torah writes אלה הדברים אשר צוה ה' לעשות אותם, “These are the things which Hashem had commanded to do them,” in connection with the building of the Tabernacle, (Exodus 35,1) as there too, the Torah had interrupted its narrative by referring to the rules of Sabbath observance. In light of the above we can understand very well why when introducing this legislation the Torah did not use the words והקרבתם אשה לה' when describing the Sabbath, [although such an offering is, of course tendered every Sabbath, Ed.] as it does at the end of the mention of each festival, and instead it writes at the end of the chapter (verse 37) אלה מועדי ה' אשר תקראו אותם מקראי קודש להקריב אשה לה' מנחה זבח ונסכים דבר יום ביומו. מלבד שבתות ה' ומלבד מתנותיכם וגו' , “These are the appointed festivals of Hashem that you shall proclaim as holy convocations, to offer a fire-offering to Hashem: a burnt offering, and its meal-offering, a feast-offering, and its libation, each day’s requirement each day. Apart from Hashem’s Sabbaths, and apart from your gifts, apart from all your vows, etc.” These verses make crystal clear that the Sabbaths are not included in the list of the festivals. If a further proof were needed you will find this in the very fact that the Torah wrote a separate paragraph commencing with practically the same words in verse 4. If the Sabbath could have been lumped together with the festivals, surely at least that verse could have been saved.

מקראי קודש, “a holy convocation.” According to Nachmanides the exact meaning of this expression is that all the people will be assembled on that day in preparation of performing a sacred task. On such days it is a commandment for the people to assemble in or near the House of G’d [in accordance with the regulations governing ritual purity. Ed.] Public prayers would be recited, songs of praise for Hashem would be sung, etc. The people would honour such days by clean and appropriate clothing for the occasion. They would also observe the second part of the day as a day of feasting, eating and drinking well in honour of G’d. Onkelos views the origin of the word מקראי as related to a happening, rather than as related to “following a call.” He quotes אשר יקרא אתכם באחרית הימים, “what is going to happen to you at the end of days,” (Genesis 49,1) as another example of the word מקרא or יקרא having this meaning. In other words, “whenever such a day or date occurs, make a point of treating it as a holy day.” This day or these days are to be treated as something special, a fact that is reflected in one’s bearing, cleanliness, distinctive dress and superior food. All this is implied in Onkelos’ meaning.

מלאכת עבודה, “laborious work.” Rashi includes even activities which, if not performed on those days, result in the Israelite suffering irrevocable financial loss. Nachmanides disagrees, saying that what purpose would be served in the Torah telling us that we must not even perform activities that result in financial loss, so that activities that do not result in financial loss would be forbidden automatically? If this were a valid form of reasoning, we would apply it also to activities forbidden on the Sabbath! Furthermore, if correct, why did the sages have to rule that activities which result in irretrievable loss may be performed on the intermediate days of the festivals, thus providing us with an allusion in the text, whereas the sages contend that there is no such allusion in the text? (Compare Chagigah 18) In addition, the expression עבודה, includes all manner of work and activities, as we know from Proverbs 28,19 עובד אדמתו ישבע לחם, “he who works his soil will have enough to eat.” Or, Deut. 15,12 ועבדך שש שנים, “and he shall serve you for six years.” Nachmanides quotes a number of additional such uses of the word עבודה. On the basis of these examples he concludes that the expression מלאכת עבודה includes all manner of work except that involving the preparation of food. He draws a comparison between Kayin who was a עובד אדמה, tilled the earth, but did not do this for his amusement or satisfaction but out of necessity, and someone who prepares food, the objective being his enjoyment. Clearly, the two activities are not comparable, hence the expressionמלאכת עבודה describes the nature of the activity not its value to the person who performs it. It is noteworthy that when speaking of the festival of matzot, the very first of the festivals mentioned, in Exodus 12,16, the Torah writes כל מלאכה לא יעשה בהם, that on those days no manner of work may be performed. This is no contradiction, as the Torah immediately continues to exempt the kind of work needed to prepare food. On the contrary, it supports the theory that whenever the expression מלאכת עבודה is used this excludes activities involved in preparing food. Had this not been the intention of the Torah the word מלאכה would have sufficed. There is one exception to the wording used by the Torah in connection with the festivals, i.e. Deut. 16,8 where the eating of מצות is discussed, and where the Torah in prohibiting work on the seventh day of Passover uses the expression לא תעשה מלאכה. On the face of it, this sounds ambiguous, as the Torah omits the customary מלאכת עבודה on the one hand, but it does not write כל מלאכה לא תעשה, “that you must not perform all manner of work” either, as it does concerning the Sabbath or the Day of Atonement. The meaning of the words לא תעשה מלאכה is simply: “do not perform the manner of work I have already prohibited to you on the festivals in previous references to that day.”

והקרבתם אשה לה' שבעת ימים, “you shall bring a fire-offering to Hashem for a seven-day period.” The reason is that all the seven days of Passover enjoy the status of being festivals, חג, so that these additional publicly financed sacrifices are mandatory. On the other hand, the work prohibition applies only on the first and the seventh day of this festival. The components of this fire offering are not detailed here but in a separate section in Numbers chapters 28-29.

דבר אל בני ישראל, “speak to the Children of Israel, etc.” Nachmanides writes that the reason why the Torah devotes a separate instruction by G’d for each of these festivals instead of a single introductory heading for all of them, is that each festival contains some legislation which did not apply to the previous one, excepting the Sabbath. The common denominator of all of them is that all are called מקראי קודש, “holy convocations. Since there is no specific date given for the festival of Shavuaot, seeing that the Torah links it to the first day the omer was offered on the 16th day of Nissan and stipulates that the 50th day thereafter must be the festival of Shavuot, it is lumped together in the same paragraph as that legislating the omer offering, an offering which permits the new barley harvest for general consumption from that date on. Also, the fact that both Rosh Hahanah and Yom Hakippurim occur in the same month and represent the beginning and the end of the ten days of penitence, i.e. they cover basically the same subject, at least the words דבר אל בני ישראל, “speak to the Children of Israel,” are not repeated.

ממחרת השבת, “on the day following the rest-day.” The meaning of this expression is: “on the day following the first day of Passover.” The word שבת here does not mean: “a week,” as it does in verse 15 in שבע שבתות “seven weeks.” The reason the Torah refers to a week by the name of שבת is that each unit of seven successive days includes a “Sabbath,” and seeing that that is the central day of the week as far as Jews are concerned, it is not surprising to hear a “week” also referred to as a “Shabbat.” In any reference to the Jewish calendar, each day of the week is identified by its relation to the Sabbath, i.e. “the first day of the Sabbath”, “the second day of the Sabbath,” etc. Nachmanides writes that there is no problem even if we were to call the expression ממחרת השבת as “the day following the week,” as the day on which the omer is waved for the first time is the 16th day of Nissan, the day on which the counting of the seven new weeks begins. It follows that that day is the day following the completion of the previous week. Seeing that the first day of Passover is on the fifteenth of Nissan, the Torah quite correctly describes the sixteenth as the day following the week that had just expired.

וספרתם לכם, “you are to count for yourselves, etc.” Some commentators believe that the reason the Torah demanded this count is that seeing that these are days when the harvesting in the fields is in full swing, the common people, the farmers, might lose track of the exact number of days that had elapsed since the Passover. Seeing that during that period they are hardly ever at home, the messengers from the court might have difficulty in reaching them. These farmers might not find out if the month of Nissan had 29 days or thirty days, and similarly, they might not know if the High Court had extended the length of the month of Iyar or not. By counting until 50 they would be certain to observe the festival of Shavuot on the correct day. This is also the reason that the optimal time for counting these days was in the evening, as during the day they might have been to preoccupied with their harvesting activities.

וספרתם לכם, according to Nachmanides the additional word לכם, “for yourselves,” was the reason why our sages decreed that every individual was to count these days, it was not enough for the members of the Court to do so on behalf of the people at large, as they did when they proclaimed the day of the New Moon. On the other hand, when the Torah writes וספרת לך in the singular mode, pertaining to the Jubilee year, that is a task reserved for the High Court exclusively. (Leviticus 25,8) The number of days from the first heaving of the omer offering corresponds exactly to the number of years in a Jubilee cycle. The seven years in that cycle, correspond to the seven weeks in the counting of the omer. Presumably, this is the reason why the Torah wrote תספרו חמישים יום, “you are to count 50 days, meaning that you count seven times seven days, i.e. 49 days, whereupon the 50th day is a holy convocation, again a wording which closely parallels the Jubilee legislation in chapter 25. The principal reason for mentioning the number 50 is to ensure that we do not count either less or more than the number stipulated by the Torah.

ממחרת השבת, the word ממחרת is as if the Torah had written במחרת, “on the day following, etc.” This is quite accurate as the counting begins on the day following the first day of the matzah festival. The Torah adds: (actually at the end of verse 14)

חוקת עולם לדורותיכם בכל מושבותיכם, “an eternal decree for all your generations wherever you will reside.” The decree referred to is 1) that of not eating of the new barley harvest before the day on which the omer offering has been presented. 2) To observe the fiftieth day as a festival on which the performance of work is prohibited. I might have thought that seeing that these laws have been linked to offering sacrifices, also to the offering of the first sacrifice of breads made from the new wheat harvest on Shavuot, that the other regulations do not apply when there is no Temple and when we are not dwelling in our own land. This is also the reason that the Torah stresses the same applicability of the prohibitions of the Day of Atonement, as there too, seeing that the atonement mentioned in the Torah is linked to special offerings and the ceremony of the scapegoat, that when these cannot be performed that the entire Yom Kippur legislation would be null and void. By writing these extra lines the Torah makes plain that this is not so. There was no need to specifically mention applicability of the prohibitions of New Year, Sukkot and chag hamatzot wherever Jews lived except in connection with the laws in Exodus chapter 12,17 seeing that it appeared to depend entirely on the availability of a male lamb in its first year for slaughter in the Temple. We might have thought that once there was no place available to offer the blood and fat of that lamb on the altar, the laws about unleavened bread and bitter herbs would also not apply, therefore the Torah had to write verse 17 to disabuse us of such an idea. As long as the Torah did not restrict a prohibition to periods when there would be a Temple, such prohibitions remain in force regardless. (Compare Kidushin 37)

חמץ תאפינה, “they shall be baked leavened.” Nachmanides, quoting Jeremiah 5,24 חוקות קציר ישמור לנו, “He who keeps for our benefit the laws of the periods appointed for the harvest,” sees in the offering a form of thanksgiving offering. Every thanksgiving offering contained 10 out of 40 loaves that were leavened. Nachmanides speculates that the normal prohibition to include anything leavened in our offerings may be related to leavening being viewed as outgrowths of spiritually negative influences, “creatures” or phenomena which have their origin in demonic forces, Satan. As such they are reminders of the attribute of Justice, the last thing we want to remind Hashem of when offering Him our sacrifices.

ובקצרכם את קציר ארצכם, “When you reap the harvest of your land, etc.” Ibn Ezra writes that the reason the Torah introduces the subject of the harvest here is that the festival of Shavuot occurs right in the middle of the harvesting season, and the Israelite needs to be reminded of his duties vis a vis that festival at a time when he is so engrossed in bringing in his harvest. Nachmanides writes: the true reason, in my opinion is, that the introductory letter ו in the word ובקצרכם is a reference to the first time when the Torah commanded a mitzvah related to the harvest, when it spoke about the omer the offering of a sheaf of the early barley harvest on the second day of the Passover festival. At that time, the Torah had introduced the subject with the words כי תבואו אל הארץ...וקצרתם את קצירה in verse 10 of our chapter, implying that we must not shortchange the poor in order to fulfill the commandment of bringing that omer, by harvesting also the last corner of the field. Normally, when a positive commandment conflicts with a negative commandment and is due simultaneously, the positive commandment can override the negative commandment. In the example mentioned this is not so. (Compare verse 22)

יהיה לכם שבתון, “shall be a day of rest for you.” Nachmanides writes that this formula suggests that Rosh Hashanah is to be a day of rest for you in that you do not even perform some of the tasks that you do normally perform on the other festivals. For instance, if you were inclined to measure the size of the harvest you had brought in, not one of the 39 forbidden activities, you should not do this on Rosh Hashanah. Neither should you weigh fruit, etc. Avoidable physically tiring labour, should not be engaged in on that day.

זכרון תרועה, “a remembrance including *shofar-*blasts. According to Rashi this is an allusion to the Biblical verse dealing with or mentioning this subject that are to be recited on that day. [We recite 10 each in the Mussaph service. Ed.] Among the things we bring to Hashem’s attention on that day is the selfless submission by Yitzchok on the altar on which his father was prepared to sacrifice him. Nachmanides writes that the comments by Rashi on that word are only to be understood as secondary meanings superimposed by our sages, the real meaning of the word זכרון תרועה being like the meaning of the words יום תרועה, i.e. that on that day we are to blow blasts of the shofar which in turn will bring our devotion to Hashem and our making a חשבון הנפש, a serious examination of our lifestyle our concern to His attention, an activity including remorse which will continue until the tenth of the month. G’d promised also in connection with our trumpeting blasts on the חצוצרות, Moses’ trumpets that He would take note of this, that it would serve for Him as a “reminder” and He would come to our assistance when the need arises. (Compare Numbers 10,10 et al) Seeing that on that occasion the reason was that we celebrated a day of rejoicing whereas here nothing is mentioned of the blowing of the shofar being the result of a particular expression of certain collective emotions, it is clear that the shofar blasts here are not spontaneous expressions of joy, etc., but are a duty the Torah imposes on us in connection with New Year’s Day, the Day of Judgment. Whenever the Torah mentions תרועה without going into details, the reference is to a shofar, not to the trumpets. Although the Torah does not mention why on this day it is more important that we bring ourselves to Hashem’s attention than on the other days of the year, the proximity of that day to the Day of Atonement 10 days later speaks for itself. The Torah also did not elaborate on why that day has been designated as a holy convocation. Seeing that it occurs in the month that it does and the day is the day on which traditionally first man was created, it is most plausible to accept the sages’ estimation that this is the day on which the Creator sits in judgment of man, His most precious creature. The prophets provide us with a number of allusions that on this day G’d assumes the mantle of supreme Judge, i.e. “dresses:” up in garments of Royalty, the garments worn by a judge. After Rosh Hashanah, during the days of penitence, the “King” will concern Himself with forgiving, or at least reducing the level of guilt of His subjects, those who truly repent their errors.

אך בעשור, “However, on the tenth, etc.” Rashi draws attention to the saying of our sages that every time the word אך or רק appears in the Torah it introduces the limitation, diminution, of some general principle mentioned previously. Nachmanides writes, that if this is so, the meaning of our verse must be that whereas on the first of that month the entire people observed a day of teruah, blowing the shofar, seeing that all of them came up for judgment on that day, by the tenth of that month only a small portion of the people still needed to ensure that their judgment too would be favourable. This day would complete the process of atonement. The meaning of the word אך in our verse then would be the same as בלבד, “excepting,” referring to something not included in the previously enunciated rule. Just as in Exodus 31,13, basically, the rule was that the construction of the Tabernacle does not override the prohibitions of performing work on the Sabbath, it exempted performance of circumcision if the eight’s day of the baby occurred on the Sabbath. The circumcision is not postponed. The meaning of the word אך in our verse is similar to when Pharaoh pleaded with Moses to pray for G’d to forgive him his sin one more time, He used the words: אך הפעם"” (compare Exodus 10,17) When we encounter the word אך again in verse 39, i.e. אך בחמשה עשר יום לחודש השביעי באספכם את תבואת הארץ תחוגו וגו', “only on the fifteenth of the seventh month when you gather in the yield of the earth, you are to celebrate, etc.”, the message is also that even though that date may occur on the Sabbath, this does not cause the first day of the Sukkot festival to be postponed. According to the plain meaning of the text, the word אך is to be understood as similar to “but in truth,” similar to the word אכן. That word appears in such a context in Genesis 28,16 when Yaakov becomes aware that G’d’s presence is manifest at the location where he had the dream of the ladder. It appears again in such a context when Moses had killed the Egyptian thinking that there had not been any witnesses, and on the morrow he found out that he had erred. (Exodus 2,14) In our verse the meaning of the word אך then is that on the tenth of the seventh month is Yom Hakippurim, on no other day. Ibn Ezra, understands the word אך here as meaning that in spite of the extremely serious nature of that day, seeing that it too has been described as a מקרא קודש, just like all the festivals, it too is a day on which (the latter part) we are to express our joy at feeling that we have been forgiven.

כי יום כפורים הוא לכפר עליכם, “for it is the Day of Atonement to provide atonement for you, etc.” The instruments that lead to your receiving atonement are the afflictions you have submitted to, the abstaining from pursuing any of your normal and considered important activities. It is important to realise that the absence of the requisite offerings in no way impedes the process of your being forgiven for your sins.

בעצם היום הזה, “on this very day.” Nachmanides writes that the commentators generally understand the word בעצם as meaning “the substance of this day.” It would have that same meaning in verse 14 of our chapter ולחם וקלי וכרמל לא תאכלו עד עצם היום הזה, “you must not eat either bread, parched kernels or roasted kernels (from the new harvest) until this very day.” The word עצם does not appear in connection with the Sabbath day, or in connection with any of the festivals. It is only featured in connection with the festival of Shavuot and the Day of Atonement. The reason may be that just as the prohibition of eating from the new barley crop before the omer offering had been presented on the day itself, not the previous evening, it is parallel to the count which is to conclude 50 days after the time when the omer offering has been presented, when the new wheat harvest may be used for an offering. We might have thought that the various commandments attached to either the Day of Atonement or the festival of Shavuot are inextricably linked to the offering of the sacrifices the Torah tells us to offer on those days. By adding the rider בעצם היום הזה, the Torah teaches that each commandment in connection with these special days is standing on its own and has to be observed because of the date on which this day occurs, not because some other auxiliary commandments connected with these days. The word בעצם היום also implies that the night of the day in question is included in the special regulations pertaining to this day, unless of course, specifically excluded. Nachmanides adds that the word עצם is closely related to expressions denoting strength, toughness, etc., as in כחי ועוצם ידי, “my own power and the strength of my hand, [as opposed to G’d’s] Deut. 8,17). Another example is עוז ותעצומות לעם, Psalms Seeing that what supports the body is a certain toughness of character, attitude, etc., the Torah uses the expression עצם היום as in the “skeleton” of the day, the essence of it, when the occasion warrants it.

באספכם את תבואת הארץ, “when you gather in the yield of the land.” Rashi says that the purpose of the verse is to warn us that the seventh month of the year should coincide with the period when the last of the harvest is brought into the barns. This forms the basis of the sages on occasion, in tandem with the solar year’s requirements, inserting an extra month into our lunar calendar. Nachmanides argues that we already learned this from when the Torah instructed that Passover must occur during the period of the spring equinox, בחודש האביב, (Exodus 34,18) Actually, there it concerned the commemoration of the Exodus on the anniversary of when it had occurred, whereas here the concern of the Torah is that the Sukkot festival coincide with the last fruit of the orchards being harvested. The Torah here elaborates on the nature of true joy being that after a successful harvest we thank Hashem with visible symbols expressing our joy, the four species of plants being one such example. The 15th day of that month, being still part of the ingathering season we observe a festival, interrupting our work in the field, just as we do on the eighth day of the festival. We take time out to rejoice in the presence of the Lord, in Jerusalem. On the last day, a separate festival in many respects, we no longer sit in the Sukkah, nor use the four species of plants.

תחוגו את חג ה', “you will celebrate Hashem’s festival.” The meaning of the somewhat strange sounding “Hashem’s festival,” is that we are to rejoice in the location where His presence manifests itself, in the Temple; we do not celebrate our success, but we proffer our thanks to Him, Who alone has made all this possible. The reason why the Torah repeats once more in verse 41 וחגותם אותו שבעת ימים חג לה', “you will celebrate it for seven days as a festival for Hashem,” is to link it to the commandment (verse 42) to dwell in the huts for seven days. Dwelling in the huts, waving the four species, etc., are all part of the manner in which we rejoice; they are all rated as the performance of a Divine commandment. [In other words, the joy is not the reward, but the Torah by making it mandatory, promises reward for our being joyful. Ed.]

פרי עץ הדר, “the fruit of a citron tree.” This tree is distinguished by the fact that the taste of its fruit is the same as the taste of its trunk if we were to eat it. Nachmanides writes that our sages used the word in order to provide us with an allusion to this peculiarity. The fact of the matter is that the tree that in Aramaic is called etrog, is known as hadar in classical Hebrew. The meaning of the word etrog is the same as the Hebrew חמדה, something lovely and precious. The words הדר and חמדה are almost identical in meaning. It is a fact that both the tree and its fruit are known by the same name, something that is common with certain fruit trees, such as the fig and the fig tree, the date palm, and its fruit, dates, etc. As to the reason for the choice of these four species, we have a tradition that by symbolically presenting these for species as expressions of our gratitude, the rainfall during the winter season will become beneficial instead of destructive.

כל האזרח, “every native of the land of Israel;” according to Rashi the expression אזרח excludes women while including proselytes. [Rashi reads this into the letter ה at the beginning of the word האזרח, reasoning that if the Torah had only written אזרח, without adding the word בישראל, the proselytes would have been excluded. This would make sense seeing that the commandment commemorates an event in the desert, something that the proselytes’ parents were not part of. Ed.] Nachmanides writes that it seems to him that the plain meaning of our verse is that proselytes are included in the requirement to dwell in huts on Sukkot, as the Torah has more than once stated that it applies both to the native born Israelite as well as the proselyte. (Exodus 12,49; Leviticus 7,7; Numbers 15,16, 16,29) The reason that the Torah wrote the words כל האזרח, is to teach that just as native born Israelites are to perform this commandment including their minors, so the proselytes, if they have children who are minors, are to do the same. The commandment cannot be fulfilled by a single representative of the household, the others simply saying “Amen,” such as when the father recites the “kiddush,” or similar, but each male member of the family is to dwell in these huts for seven days. [Women do not need to be excluded by a special verse or letter, as they are not obligated to perform positive commandments tied to a specific time frame. Ed.] Another possible reason for the word האזרח may be anyone who is “native” in the sense that he is at home permanently in the land, excluding mariners, traveling salesmen, etc., whose livelihood makes it difficult for them to choose when their ships are at anchor, or for whom it is a great hardship to rearrange their schedules. [This makes no sense at the time when the Temple stood and every male was duty bound to be in Jerusalem at such times. Ed.]

כי בסוכות הושבתי את בני ישראל, “for I had made the Children of Israel dwell in huts, etc.” Rashi understands this verse as a reference to the clouds of glory that enveloped the Israelites during their march through the desert. Nachmanides writes that the reason why the Torah did not need to spell out what these huts were is that we have already been told of the phenomenon of the clouds of glory that enveloped the Israelites during almost the whole of their journey to the land of Canaan (until the death of Aaron). The meaning of the words is therefore quite clear. Concerning the opinion of some commentators that the word סוכות, huts, is to be understood literally, we must assume that at the beginning of the first winter in the desert the Israelites gathered materials that enabled them to construct these huts. Seeing that this had been so, G’d now commanded the Israelites to incorporate something they had made themselves but with the assistance of Hashem, Who had provided the building materials in the desert, to become part of their memorabilia. There are also some scholars who explain the reason why G’d saw fit to issue this command at this time, as if He had commanded this already in the summer, immediately after Moses received the Ten Commandments, fulfilling the commandment would have been viewed as self-interest, the sun being too hot, and shade being something urgently needed. Building huts at the time of autumn, approaching winter, and leaving more comfortable quarters in favour of a flimsy shelter, proved that the people who do this are motivated by one consideration only, i.e. to fulfill G’d’s commandment. Remembering the miracles G’d performed for the Israelites in the desert by moving into flimsy huts for a week is definitely a powerful means of identifying with our ancestors.

וידבר משה את מועדי ה' אל בני ישראל, “Moses informed the Children of Israel of the appointed festivals of Hashem.” Nachmanides comments that seeing the various chapters preceding this one had been concerned with sacrificial offerings, blemishes which would disqualify animals from serving as sacrificial lambs, Aaron and the priests had always been mentioned at the beginning of those pieces of legislation. However, here when the subjects are the festivals, something in which all parts of the people participate equally, Moses addressed all of them. The only two sacrifices mentioned in the whole list of the festivals are the omer and the first two loaves of the new wheat harvest on Shavuot, but as both of these represent the cause of the festival rather than something that needs to be done on account of the festival, there was no reason to single out the priests in connection with this. Seeing that the principal observance of the Day of Atonement was Aaron’s offering a variety of sacrifices, Aaron is addressed in that paragraph specifically (Leviticus) If, in the paragraph dealing with blemishes, the Torah addressed Aaron and his offspring as well as the Children of Israel as a whole, there is a special reason for this, also. It is in the nature of blemishes that he or she who is afflicted with such a blemish tries to hide it, as it is something embarrassing. The Torah therefore went out of its way to address everybody separately on that subject, so that nobody could claim that the legislation did not apply to him or her. Onkelos, who translated our words as ומליל משה ית סדרי מועדיא דה' ואליפנון לבני ישראל, “Moses spoke about the festivals of Hashem to the Children of Israel and taught them all about them,” meant what our sages said (Midrash Rabbah Song of Songs, 1) when they told us that Moses would teach the laws pertaining to Passover before and during Passover, and the laws that pertain to the Day of Atonement during the days preceding it as well as on that day, and the laws pertaining to Sukkot, in time for the observance of that festival. Presumably, he also meant to say that Moses used the opportunity of the approaching festivals to familiarise the Israelites with the rules by which the sages were allowed to manipulate the lunar calendar for the benefit of the farming community. He had been given permission by Hashem to authorise the Sanhedrin to thus bring in line conflicting laws governed by the solar calendar on the one hand and the lunar calendar on the other hand. [Some of the wording is mine. Ed.]