Rosh Ḥodesh / The Jewish Month

God created the sun and the moon and placed them in the heavens, and time is marked by them. The sun shines during the day, the moon at night. Years are determined by the solar cycle, and months by the lunar cycle. Indeed, the Torah states: “God said, ‘Let there be luminaries in the heavenly firmament, to separate day from night; they shall serve as signs for the seasons, days, and years’” (Bereishit 1:14).

Each month, the moon makes one revolution around the earth. One can perceive this cycle by following the appearance of the moon. At the beginning of each month, the moon looks very small to us, like a thin sliver. Its apparent size gradually increases until the middle of the month, when it appears as a complete circle. During the second half of the month, the moon wanes, until it completely disappears at the end of the month for approximately 24 hours. Afterward, it reappears as a thin sliver once more, indicating that a new month has begun.

A full lunar cycle lasts approximately 29.5 days.¹” of an hour is 3.3 seconds). The division of an hour into 1080 portions facilitates complex computations, as explained in MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 6:1-3. Since this cycle does not coincide with the earth’s daily rotation around its axis, due to the extra half-day, a Jewish month lasts either 29 or thirty days. A 29-day month is called an “incomplete month,” while a thirty-day month is called a “full month.”

footnotes: ¹ The precise duration of the lunar cycle is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793/1080ths of an hour (each portion or “ḥelek

Establishing the beginning of a month is extremely important, as all of our festivals depend on the Hebrew date: Pesaḥ commences on the fifteenth of Nisan, Yom Kippur falls out on the tenth of Tishrei, Sukkot begins on the fifteenth of Tishrei, etc. In fact, it is so important that the Torah permits witnesses who have seen the new moon to desecrate Shabbat in order to travel to Jerusalem and testify before the beit din (rabbinical court; MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 3:2). The court would sanctify the new month based on their testimony and then dispatch messengers to inform all of Israel when the new month began.

Rosh Ḥodesh / The Authority to Set the Months Was Entrusted to Israel

A new month does not automatically begin when the moon reappears. Rather, the beit din sanctifies the month, as it says, “This month shall mark for you” (Shemot 12:2). God showed Moshe the configuration of the moon in its renewed state and said, “This testimony shall be given over to you” (RH 22a). That is, witnesses must come before you and testify that they saw the new moon, and you shall sanctify the month based on their testimony.² the next day, the court sanctifies the month on that day, transforming the thirtieth day of the previous month into the first day of the new month: Rosh Ḥodesh. They then immediately offer the special Rosh Ḥodesh sacrifices. Consequently, the previous month is rendered an “incomplete month,” as it had only 29 days. If, however, no witnesses arrive on the thirtieth, Rosh Ḥodesh is the next day – the 31st – and the previous month is rendered a “full month,” consisting of a full thirty days. In such a case, the beit din does not need to hear witnesses’ testimony or declare the beginning of the new month, as in any case there are only two days on which Rosh Ḥodesh can possibly occur; if no witnesses come on the first day, Rosh Ḥodesh automatically falls out on the next day (MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 2:8).

footnotes: ² If witnesses who saw the new moon on the night of the thirtieth day of the month come before the beit din

After Moshe’s death, the authority to establish the Jewish calendar was conferred upon the Beit Din Ha-gadol of every generation (the high Jewish court that functioned in earlier times; the Sanhedrin), on condition that its judges received semikha(rabbinic ordination) from another who has received semikhain an unbroken chain that originates with Moshe himself. Such ordination can only be transmitted in the Land of Israel (MT, Laws of Courts 4). If a time comes when the Jews are unable to set the months by way of a beit din, the halakha states that they must do so using mathematical calculations.

Thus, even though the lunar cycle is a natural phenomenon, the renewal of the moon does not, by itself, sanctify the month. Rather, the Jewish people sanctify the months, and by doing so enable the holiness of time to reveal itself. This explains why the Sages decided to end the middle berakha of the Musaf prayer on Rosh Ḥodesh with the words “Blessed are You, Lord, Who sanctifies Israel and the New Moons” (Ber. 49a). Perhaps this is also why the first mitzva the Torah commanded the Jewish people was the mitzva of sanctifying the new month (Shemot 12:2), as this mitzva showcases Israel’s unique sanctity – that the holiness of time reveals itself through them.

Rosh Ḥodesh / The History of the Sanctification of the Moon

As a result of Roman persecution, Jewish settlement in the Holy Land dwindled during the talmudic period, while the larger community of Jews in Babylonia advanced in all areas. Nonetheless, the Sages of Eretz Yisrael retained the authority to sanctify months and intercalate years, as it says, “For**Torah shall come forth from Zion” (Yeshayahu 2:3). They would dispatch messengers every month to inform the Jews residing in the Diaspora when the new month began. Only on rare occasions, like during the Beitar revolt, when the situation in the Holy Land was unbearable and the Sages were unable to sanctify the months, did they deviate from this procedure. During such times, judges ordained in Eretz Yisrael would leave the Land and travel to places that were free of such persecution and establish the order of the months and the years there.

Eventually, the Roman decrees intensified, and, as a result of Christian influence, targeted the Sages in an attempt to stop them from sanctifying the months. During this period, the rabbis sometimes would have to sanctify the month while in hiding and inform the Sages of Babylonia by sending them a secret letter (see San. 12a).

Toward the end of the talmudic period, Hillel II came to the conclusion that the batei dinof Eretz Yisrael would no longer be able to sanctify the months. In addition, there were fears that hardships and evil decrees would lead to the termination of the institution of semikha. Since Hillel II, as the nasi(president) of the Beit Din Ha-gadol – having inherited the position in a generational chain from R. Yehuda Ha-Nasi – had the authority to set the calendar, he and his fellow judges took the initiative and calculated the months and years until the end of time and consecrated them. Thus, in the year 4119 of the Hebrew calendar (359 CE), the Jewish people began to count the months according to the Jewish calendar that Hillel II established. We pray that we will soon be privileged to witness the final redemption, when the beit din in Jerusalem will once again sanctify the months.

Rambam postulates the very novel idea that the sanctification of the months depends on the inhabitants of Eretz Yisrael, even after semikha was abolished. That is, when the Jews of the Holy Land calculate the order of the months based on the fixed formula used to establish the calendar, then the months are considered sanctified. If, however, no Jews lived in Eretz Yisrael, God forbid, the order of the months, along with all the festivals, would cease to exist. But far be it from God to act thus, for He has promised us in the Torah that the remnants of our nation will never be destroyed.³, Positive Commandment 153, Rambam writes that the sanctification of the months is entrusted to the Beit Din Ha-gadol. Ramban, however, claims that a beit din of three will suffice. It may be that there is no argument here, as Rambam means to say that the months are sanctified merely by virtue of the foremost beit dinof the generation, not that they actually must sanctify the months in practice. As stated above, the months were sanctified primarily in Eretz Yisrael, and only in dire circumstances did the greatest rabbis of the generation, who were ordained in Eretz Yisrael, leave the Land in order to sanctify the months without interference from the kingdom. This is derived from a passage in Berakhot 63a: When Ḥanina, R. Yehoshua’s nephew, went down to the Diaspora (after the Beitar revolt), he intercalated years and established months outside Eretz Yisrael. The rabbis of Eretz Yisrael sent two Torah scholars after him: R. Yossi b. Kipar and the grandson of Zekharia b. Kevutal. When he saw them, he said, “Why have you come?” They replied, “We have come to learn Torah.” He proclaimed, “These men are among the greatest rabbis of the generation, and their forefathers served in the Holy Temple.” He began declaring things impure while they declared them pure. He forbade certain acts and they permitted them. So he announced, “These men are worthless; they are empty.” They said to him, “You already built us up; you can no longer knock us down. You already built a fence; you can no longer breach it.” He responded, “Why is it that whenever I declare something impure you declare it pure; whenever I forbid something you permit it?” They answered, “Because you are intercalating years and establishing months outside Eretz Yisrael.” He said, “Didn’t Akiva b. Yosef intercalate years and establish months outside Eretz Yisrael?” They replied, “Leave aside the case of R. Akiva, for he did not leave behind anyone like him in Eretz Yisrael.” He said to them, “I, too, left no one behind like me in Eretz Yisrael.” They answered, “The kids you left behind have become goats with horns (i.e., the young students you left behind have become great Torah scholars in their own right), and they sent us to you, and this is what they told us: Go, tell him in our names to desist. If he listens – fine. But if he does not – excommunicate him. And tell our brethren in the Diaspora to desist as well. If they listen – fine. But if not – let them go up to the mountain, where Aḥiya will build an altar and Ḥanania will play the harp, and everyone will deny God, saying, ‘We have no portion in the God of Israel.’” Upon hearing this, the entire congregation immediately burst into tears and said, “God forbid! We do have a portion in the God of Israel.” And why all the fuss [not to establish the calendar outside Eretz Yisrael]? Because it says, “For Torah shall come forth from Zion, the word of the Lord from Jerusalem” (Yeshayahu 2:3). We stated above that when semikhadoes not exist, the months are sanctified by way of mathematical calculations. According to Rambam, this is a halakha le-Moshe mi-Sinai (a law that God taught Moshe at Mount Sinai). This is why he does not mention Hillel II in his discussion on the topic. Ramban, on the other hand, writes that there is no source indicating that this is a halakha le-Moshe mi-Sinai. Rather, the truth is that in our times as well, the months are considered sanctified by rabbis who have undergone semikha– that is, based on Hillel II’s calculations. Consequently, Ramban does not require the existence of Jews living in Eretz Yisrael for the calculations to apply to them, as he maintains that the months are not established based on the calculations of those currently living in Eretz Yisrael, but rather upon Hillel II’s ancient calculations (see AHS 417:7).

footnotes: ³ The main ideas presented here are taken from MT, Laws of Sanctifying the Month 5:1-3. In Sefer Ha-mitzvot

Rosh Ḥodesh / Rosh Ḥodesh – One Day or Two?

When a month is incomplete (29 days), the following Rosh Ḥodesh is observed for one day. When it is full (thirty days), the following Rosh Ḥodesh lasts two days: the thirtieth day of the previous month and the first day of the next month. Even though the second day is the main part of Rosh Ḥodesh – as it is the first day of the month, from which we count the subsequent days of the month – nevertheless, all the laws of Rosh Ḥodesh apply to the first day as well. We recite the Halleland Musaf prayers and we insert Ya’aleh Ve-yavo into the Amida(the silent standing prayer, i.e., Shemoneh Esrei)**and Birkat Ha-mazon(Grace after Meals). One who forgot to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Shaḥarit or Minḥa must repeat the Amida. Several explanations have been given for the practice of observing two days of Rosh Ḥodesh; see the footnote.⁴ 168, quoting Rabbeinu Shlomo and Rid, as well as Birkei Yosef 427, explain that on a full month, the new moon appears in the middle of the thirtieth day (after 29½ days). Therefore, even though the next day will be the first of the month (in order to balance out the months, as explained above, in section 1), nonetheless, it is fitting to treat the day on which the moon reappears as Rosh Ḥodesh as well. This is why we observe two days of Rosh Ḥodesh. Tashbetz 3:244 states that the Jews in ancient times would refrain from working and prepare festive meals in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh, already beginning to do so on the thirtieth day of the month, in case witnesses arrive and the beit din declares that day the first of the month. And if no one came to testify, they would treat the next day as Rosh Ḥodesh as well. Thus, whenever a month was full, they observed two days of Rosh Ḥodesh (similar to Rosh Ha-shana). Even though the musaf sacrifices were offered exclusively on the first of the month, these two explanations indicate that both days are holy, and we therefore recite Hallel, Musaf, and Ya’aleh Ve-yavo on both days. R. Shlomo Yosef Zevin writes in Le-or Ha-halakha (in an essay on Rosh Ḥodesh) that according to Rashi and Shiltei Giborim (Rosh Ha-shana, ch. 1), Jews used to observe only one day of Rosh Ḥodesh for a full month, while Or Zaru’a (vol. 2, Hilkhot Rosh Ḥodesh) and Maharsha (BM 59b) maintain that they observed two days. These authorities also disagree how to interpret the verse, “But on the day after the new moon, the second day” (1 Shmuel 20:27). Tashbetz and Rabbeinu Yeshaya understand it as a reference to the second day of Rosh Ḥodesh, while Rashi and Radak maintain that it refers to the day after Rosh Ḥodesh – a regular day. Some explain that we observe two days because we are uncertain which day is truly Rosh Ḥodesh. This opinion, however, has been rejected. Therefore, one who forgets to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Shaḥarit or Minḥa on either day must repeat the Amida.

footnotes: ⁴ Rosh Ḥodesh means the first day of month; why then is the thirtieth day of a full month also considered Rosh Ḥodesh? Shibolei Ha-leket

Rosh Ḥodesh / The Status of Rosh Ḥodesh in the Torah

The Torah lists Rosh Ḥodesh together with all the other festivals on which we bring musafim (additional offerings) in honor of the day’s sanctity. The Sages derive from Eikha 1:15 that Rosh Ḥodesh is also called a mo’ed (fixed time) like all the other festivals (Pesaḥim 77a). In Temple times, trumpets would be sounded on Rosh Ḥodesh, as it says, “And on your joyous occasions – your fixed times and new moon days, you shall sound the trumpets over your burnt offerings and your sacrifices of well-being” (Bamidbar 10:10).

Because of the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh, a custom developed to go out and greet one’s rabbi, similar to the custom on Shabbat to say “Shabbat shalom” to the rabbi (2 Melakhim 4:23, RH 16b, BHL 301:4). There is also a custom to prepare festive meals on Rosh Ḥodesh (cf. 1 Shmuel 20).

The Torah uses a marvelous expression when describing the goat that would be sacrificed on Rosh Ḥodesh, calling it “a sin offering for the Lord” (Bamidbar 28:15). The Talmud (Ḥullin 60b) explains the essence of this matter. In the beginning, God created two great luminaries in the sky, the sun and the moon. The moon, in hopes that God would diminish the sun so that it alone could reign supreme, appealed to the Master of the World: “How can two kings share the same crown?” God, however, said to the moon, “Go and reduce yourself.” The moon replied, asking, “Because I made a justified claim before You, I should reduce myself?” God consoled the moon, telling it that the Jews would reckon the months according to its cycle, and that righteous people would be called by its name (i.e., they would use the epithet “the Small” in reference to the moon following its diminution). But the moon was not consoled, so God said, “Bring atonement for Me for making the moon smaller.” This is why it says, “And there shall be one goat as a sin offering for the Lord.”⁵ (additional) sacrifices offered on Rosh Ḥodesh were: two bullocks, one ram, and seven sheep as a wholly-burnt offering (Bamidbar 28:11).

footnotes: ⁵ A goat was brought as a sin offering on all the holidays, but nowhere else does it say, “a sin offering for the Lord.” The other musaf

This is a very profound concept, but on a simple level, the moon’s reduction symbolizes the deficiencies that exist in creation – the descent of the soul when it arrives in this world and all the failures that man experiences during his lifetime. All these failures and deficiencies are prerequisites for subsequent growth, because coping with hardships helps one reach higher heights in the end, as R. Abahu says, “The wholly righteous cannot stand where penitents stand” (Ber. 34b). In the meantime, though, people commit sins that cause great pain in the world. In order to relieve this pain and repair the flaws, God commanded us to sacrifice a goat as a sin offering. This is the purpose of Rosh Ḥodesh: to show us how a new beginning sprouts from the moon’s reduction, which happened as a result of its sinful indictment of God. Therefore, Rosh Ḥodesh is a good time for new beginnings and repentance; indeed, it is a time of profound joy. However, until the world is redeemed from all its deficiencies, the joy of Rosh Ḥodesh is slightly hidden and is not completely revealed (see also below, sections 15-16).

Rosh Ḥodesh / Festive Meals on Rosh Ḥodesh and the Prohibition to Fast or Grieve

Rosh Ḥodesh is one of the holidays on which it is appropriate to rejoice. However, there is no explicit commandment to rejoice on Rosh Ḥodesh by conducting festive meals. Therefore, while it is meritorious to enjoy special meals on Rosh Ḥodesh, one is not obligated to do so (SA**419:1).

Nevertheless, one may not grieve on Rosh Ḥodesh, and therefore one may not fast on the day (ibid. 418:1). Anyone who refrains from eating on Rosh Ḥodesh, even for a short period of time, with the intention of fasting, transgresses this prohibition. But if, by chance, one neglected to eat for several hours, there is no reason for concern (BHL 418, s.v. “Rosh Ḥodesh assur”; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 418:3). Technically, one who ate only fruits on Rosh Ḥodesh is not considered one who has fasted and thus transgressed; rather, he simply failed to fulfill the mitzva of enjoying festive meals on Rosh Ḥodesh.⁶ 15b, “Even though it is called mo’ed, the Torah does not call it a day of feasting and joy.” Rosh (Ber. 7:23) concurs, stating that we do not insert the word simḥa (joy) into the corrective berakha for Birkat Ha-mazon on Rosh Ḥodesh (see below n. 14). In contrast, Yerei’im 227 states, “One is obligated to rejoice on Rosh Ḥodesh,” though there is no obligation to eat bread at the meal, because one can satisfy the requirement of joy by eating meat and drinking wine. The final halakha remains as stated above. Rambam maintains that fasting on Rosh Ḥodesh is prohibited by Torah law, while Beit Yosef 418 maintains that it is rabbinically prohibited. There was a custom among the ḥasidim rishonim(pious people of yore) to fast on two particular Rosh Ḥodesh days –the first of Nisan, because Aharon’s sons died on that date, and the first ofAv, because Aharon himself died on that date (SA**580:2). Rema 580:1 comments that one should not fast on Rosh Ḥodesh for the entire day; rather he should eat before nightfall. A regular person should not accept upon himself to fast on these days of Rosh Ḥodesh.

footnotes: ⁶ Rashi states in Ta’anit

The main way to fulfill this mitzva is by adding a special dish to one’s regular menu in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh. This mitzva applies even when Rosh Ḥodesh coincides with Shabbat (MB 418:2, 419:1-2).

Even though one is not obligated to eat bread at a Rosh Ḥodesh meal, it is a mitzva to do so (SHT 419:1).

It is proper to set the table respectfully for a Rosh Ḥodesh meal. Some are meticulous about eating meat and drinking wine at a Rosh Ḥodesh meal.

When Rosh Ḥodesh lasts two days, there is a mitzva to prepare festive meals on both days. The primary mitzva is to conduct these meals during the day, but some say that there is a mitzva to conduct festive meals at night as well, in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh.⁷, Year 2, Vayikra 10 and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 419:5. Eating meat and drinking wine are also ways to beautify the mitzva in honor of Rosh Ḥodesh. According to Yerei’im, however, it is an actual mitzva, as mentioned in the previous note. This is why most Sephardic Jews only begin to refrain from eating meat and drinking wine from the second of Av, in order to uphold the honor of Rosh Ḥodesh. The Ashkenazic custom is to refrain from meat and wine on Rosh Ḥodesh Av as well (see below 8:13). MB 419:2 states that there is no need to conduct a festive meal on Rosh Ḥodesh night, but Responsa Rema Mi-Fano §79 and Eshel Avraham (Buczacz) maintain that there is a mitzva to do so.

footnotes: ⁷ The custom to beautify the mitzva by setting the table respectfully is cited in Ben Ish Ḥai

One may not do things on Rosh Ḥodesh that evoke sorrow. Therefore, one may not deliver a eulogy on Rosh Ḥodesh. If, however, the deceased was a Torah scholar, one may deliver a eulogy, but only in the presence of the body (SA 420:1, MB ad loc.**1; YD 401:5).

Similarly, it is customary to refrain from visiting cemeteries on Rosh Ḥodesh. Therefore, if the yahrzeit(anniversary of death) or the end of shloshim (the first thirty days after death) coincides with Rosh Ḥodesh, the friends and relatives of the deceased should visit the grave on the day before Rosh Ḥodesh. If that is impossible, they should go after Rosh Ḥodesh. One may visit kivrei tzadikim(graves of righteous people) on Rosh Ḥodesh because this does not evoke sorrow.

A bride and groom who follow the custom of fasting on their wedding day (an Ashkenazic custom that some Sephardim also follow) should not fast if their wedding takes place on Rosh Ḥodesh (SA 573:1).⁸Nisan, because there is a minhag ḥasidim(practice of the pious) to fast on that day anyway. Pri Megadim maintains that one who does not usually fast on Rosh Ḥodesh**Nisan should not do so on his or her wedding day. See Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh 14:19 and n. 39, where the author discusses the case of a wedding that takes place on the first night of Rosh Ḥodesh when the bride and groom surely fast during the day prior to the wedding. He explains that according to AHS EH 61:21, who maintains that brides and grooms fast in order to ensure that they are not drunk at their wedding, they should continue fasting until after they exit the ḥupa (ritual wedding canopy), even though this will mean that they are entering Rosh Ḥodesh in an afflicted state. KitzurSA 146:1, on the other hand, maintains that brides and grooms always fast only until nightfall even if this occurs before the ḥupa, because the purpose of the fast is atonement.

footnotes: ⁸ According to Rema 573:1 and MB 573:9, they should fast on Rosh Ḥodesh

Rosh Ḥodesh / The Custom for Women to Refrain from Working on Rosh Ḥodesh

One may work on Rosh Ḥodesh. Ideally, though, one should not do so, as is the law on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. The rule is that the holier the day, the more it is designated for holy endeavors, and the more one should limit his involvement in work. Thus, all work is forbidden on Shabbat, because it is the holiest of all our special days. Work is also forbidden on Yom Tov (festival), which is a level below Shabbat in sanctity, but one may perform activities that are necessary for food preparation. A level below Yom Tov is Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, when only certain acts are forbidden. Rosh Ḥodesh should rightfully be on par with Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. However, since the twelve tribes of Israel sinned in the episode of the Golden Calf, they correspondingly lost the special quality of the twelve Rashei Ḥodashim of the year. Women, however, did not participate in the sin of the Golden Calf, refusing to give their jewelry in order to help create it. Therefore, God rewarded them in this world and in the World to Come. In this world, God instituted that “they observe Rosh Ḥodesh more than the men do.” God also promised that in the World to Come, they will regain their youthfulness, like the moon that renews itself every month, as it says, “He satisfies you with good things in the prime of life, so that your youth is renewed like the eagle’s” (Tehilim 103:5;Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer 45). As a result, women absorb more of the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh, and they have thus adopted the custom to refrain from working then. ⁹ 45, Tur 417, Perisha 417:1, and Darkhei Moshe 417:1 (quoting Or Zaru’a) explain the issue. R. Ḥayim Vital explains in Sha’ar Ha-kavanot 76b that women correspond to the sefira (kabbalistic “emanation”) of malkhut (kingship) and the moon, both of which renew themselves, while men correspond to tiferet (beauty), which does not renew itself. (Furthermore, malkhut involves a decline, from which it can reach even higher than tiferet. This is alluded to in the verse, “A capable wife is a crown for her husband” [Mishlei 12:4].)

footnotes: ⁹ This follows the explanation of Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer

In truth, in the time of the Temple, when the Kohanim (priests) brought musaf offerings, some men also would refrain from doing major work on Rosh Ḥodesh. But their practice is no longer binding, because they participated in the sin of the Golden Calf. Women, on the other hand, did not sin, and thus have more of a connection to the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh. As a result, their practice remains valid.

Therefore, every woman should refrain from doing certain types of work on Rosh Ḥodesh – knitting, for example – in order to differentiate between Rosh Ḥodesh and ordinary days. It goes without saying that she should not plan to do any big jobs on Rosh Ḥodesh.

Some women go above and beyond and refrain from doing any type of work that is forbidden on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. This includes sewing, knitting, and fixing things in the house. Cooking, baking, and ironing, however, are permitted, as they are permitted on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed as well. Washing clothing in a washing machine is also permitted, because it entails almost no effort. If the clothes are needed for Rosh Ḥodesh itself, one may wash them even by hand. An employed woman may work on Rosh Ḥodesh, even if she generally follows the practice of those who go above and beyond, because if she misses work regularly on Rosh Ḥodesh, she might lose her job. And even if there is no concern that she will be fired, she may go to work if she needs the money or if her absence will cause her employer to lose money.¹⁰ and Beit Yosef OḤ 417 explain that the main source for this custom is y. Ta’anit 1:6: “Those women who are accustomed not to work on Rosh Ḥodesh – it is a custom.” According to Rabbeinu Yeruḥam, a woman who never followed such a custom need not take it on. However, BHL 417, s.v. “ve-hanashim,” states that according to most Rishonim, all women must keep this custom, but they can fulfill their obligation by refraining from any minimal type of work. If, however, they have a more stringent custom that forbids additional types of work, their custom is binding. Indeed, some act more stringently, and I wrote that this is considered going above and beyond. Eshel Avraham (Buczacz) states that even those who go above and beyond should not treat Rosh Ḥodesh**more stringently than they do Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. Therefore, they may wash clothes for the sake of Rosh Ḥodesh, because the reason for the prohibition on Ḥol Ha-mo’edis only to ensure that people wash their clothes in anticipation of the holiday. Regarding washing machines: Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh 11:7 states that some are stringent, but that R. Shlomo Zalman Auerbach permits it, because it involves no effort. AHS 417:10 states that a woman may work on Rosh Ḥodesh in order to make a living, and that this is the prevalent custom. Hilkhot Ḥagim 1:5 agrees. This can be derived from a kal va-ḥomer (a fortiori argument): If she is liable to lose her job, or if she needs that day’s wages desperately, she may work even on Ḥol Ha-mo’ed. Thus, it is all the more so on Rosh Ḥodesh, which is a lesser holiday. Some women go above and beyond and forgo working that day if they can do so easily. It seems to me that even women who go above and beyond are lenient when it comes to writing for purposes that are not related to work. According to Shibolei Ha-leket, when Rosh Ḥodesh is two days long, the custom for women to refrain from working applies only on the second day, the first of the new month. Roke’aḥ maintains that it applies on both days. Mor U-ketzi’a maintains that the custom applies only during the day on Rosh Ḥodesh, not at night. It seems to me that women follow this custom at night as well. See MB 417:4, BHL (end of 417). BHL 417, s.v. “minhag tov,” states in the name of Baḥ that a husband may not demand that his wife work on Rosh Ḥodesh, but she may work if she desires. As stated above, most poskim agree that a woman should refrain from doing some form of work. Since it is a mitzva for a woman to refrain from working, even though it is not obligatory, it is clear that her husband cannot demand that she work on Rosh Ḥodesh, except for housework, like cooking. Ḥida (Responsa Yosef Ometz §20) cites Rishonim who maintain that men had a custom as well to refrain from working on Rosh Ḥodesh. He explains that this custom developed because they would bow before God in the Holy Temple. Turei Even (on Tractate Megilla) claims that the custom was based on the musaf sacrifices that were offered in the Temple on Rosh Ḥodesh. Either way, most poskim believe that this custom is not binding (MB 417:2).

footnotes: ¹⁰ Tur

Rosh Ḥodesh / Shabbat Mevarkhim

On the Shabbat preceding Rosh Ḥodesh (known as Shabbat Mevarkhim), it is customary to announce when Rosh Ḥodesh will take place and recite Birkat Ha-ḥodesh(“blessing the new month”),a prayer that God “renew this month for us and for all His people, the house of Israel, for good and blessing.” In a certain way, this prayer also commemorates the sanctification of the new moon by the beit din of old. Therefore, it is customary to announce the exact time at which the new moon will appear. This event is known as the molad, signifying the moon’s “rebirth.” This is also why we stand during the ceremony, as people used to stand before the beit din when it would perform the mitzva of sanctifying the new moon. The only month before which we do not recite Birkat Ha-ḥodesh is Tishrei. The reason for this is that everyone knows when Rosh ḤodeshTishrei is coming, as it is also the holiday of Rosh Ha-shana.¹¹OḤ 1:142. Sefer Rosh Ḥodeshch. 1 nn. 4-8 quotes Yerei’im, Shibolei Ha-leket, and Or Zaru’a, which state that we recite Birkat Ha-ḥodesh to let people know when Rosh Ḥodesh is going to take place. Raavya writes that it is in commemoration of the sanctification of the new moon. For this reason, some communities give the rabbi the honor of blessing the new moon (Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh 1:7). What I wrote concerning our omission of Birkat Ha-ḥodeshbefore Tishrei is found in SHT 417:2.).

footnotes: ¹¹ MB 417:1 and Igrot Moshe,

We announce the coming of the new month specifically on Shabbat because that is when the entire congregation is gathered in the synagogue, and everyone will hear when Rosh Ḥodesh is set to take place. Furthermore, all the days of the week receive blessing from Shabbat, and even the sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh flows from the Shabbat that precedes it. Therefore, we bless the new month on that day. Because of this, on Shabbat Mevarkhimwe already begin to feel the festiveness of the forthcoming Rosh Ḥodesh.¹² (Rema 284:7, MB 284:17). They even omit the Av Ha-raḥamim prayer, which is said in memory of those killed in sanctification of God’s name. The only exceptions are the Shabbatot prior to Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar and Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan, because the holy martyrs were killed mainly during these two months. My teacher and master, Rav Zvi Yehuda Kook, would recite Av Ha-raḥamim even on an ordinary Shabbat Mevarkhim. He maintained that after the Holocaust it should be said on every Shabbat, just like it is said on Shabbat Mevarkhimbefore Rosh Ḥodesh Iyar and Rosh Ḥodesh Sivan.

footnotes: ¹² This is why Ashkenazim refrain from reciting memorial prayers for the dead on Shabbat Mevarkhim

**Rosh Ḥodesh / Yom Kippur Katan:A Time of Atonement

Rosh Ḥodesh**is a time of atonement, as we recite in the Musaf prayer, “a time of atonement for all their offspring.” In addition, in the time of the Temple, a male goat would be brought as a sin offering.

In order to make this atonement complete, pious Jews customarily repent in for the time leading up to Rosh Ḥodesh. Some people fast on the day before Rosh Ḥodesh and recite special Yom Kippur Katan prayers prior to the Minḥa service. The day before Rosh Ḥodesh is called Yom Kippur Katan (“the minor Yom Kippur”) because it is a time to atone for the sins of the previous month, just as Yom Kippur is a time to atone for the sins of the previous year (see MB**417:4, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 417:10-21). Nowadays, few people follow the custom of fasting; instead of fasting, one can study more Torah and give extra charity.

Rosh Ḥodesh / Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in the Amida

The unique nature of Rosh Ḥodesh must find expression in our prayers. After all, the Sages instituted our prayers in place of the offerings, and the Torah commands us to bring a musaf offering on Rosh Ḥodesh. Therefore, the Sages prescribed that we recite the Ya’aleh Ve-yavo prayer, in which we beseech God to remember us for good on Rosh Ḥodesh. They inserted it in the berakha of Retzei because that is where we ask God to restore the divine service to the Holy Temple, making it an appropriate place to mention Rosh Ḥodesh; once the divine service is restored we will be able to offer the musaf of Rosh Ḥodesh. One who forgets to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Shaḥarit or Minḥa must repeat the Amida (Shabbat 24a).

If one realizes that he forgot to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavoimmediately after completing the berakha of Retzei, he should insert Ya’aleh Ve-yavo there, and then continue with Modim. If one already began Modim, but remembered before starting to take three steps back at the end of the Amida, he should return to the beginning of Retzei and continue from there until the end, inserting Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in its proper place. This is true only regarding Shaḥarit and Minḥa; if one forgot to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo at Ma’ariv, he should not repeat any part of the Amida, unless he remembers before reciting God’s name at the conclusion of Retzei. Ma’ariv is different from the other prayers because the beit din did not sanctify the new month at night. Thus, even though one should recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Ma’ariv, he should not repeat the Amida, or even one berakha, in order to recite it (Ber. 29b, 30b; SA 422:1).¹³ in Shaḥarit or Minḥa, he should assume that he did not, and thus he must repeat the Amida in order to do so. However, if, earlier in the course of his prayers, he intended to add Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, but he is later uncertain whether he actually did so, he should assume that he did recite it, and thus he need not repeat the Amida (MB 422:10). One who forgot to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in the final Minḥa service of Rosh Ḥodesh should recite the Amida twice in Ma’ariv, stipulating beforehand that if he is not obligated to recite the Amida twice, his second Amidashould be considered a voluntary prayer (SA 108:11; Peninei Halakha: Prayer 18:10). Customarily, the gabbai (sexton) calls out, “Rosh Ḥodesh” or “Ya’aleh Ve-yavo” prior to the Amida of Ma’ariv (SA 236:2). In Shaḥarit, however, one may not interrupt between the berakha of Ga’al Yisrael and the Amida. Therefore, it is customary to bang on the podium twice, wordlessly reminding the congregants to insert Ya’aleh Ve-yavo. In addition, some have a custom to raise their voices slightly upon reaching the words Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in the silent Amida to remind others to recite it (Sheyarei Knesset Ha-gedola). Another suggestion is for the ḥazan to end the berakha of Ga’al Yisraelusing the unique Rosh Ḥodesh tune, in order to remind the people to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo.

footnotes: ¹³ If one is unsure whether he recited Ya’aleh Ve-yavo

Rosh Ḥodesh / Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Birkat Ha-mazon

One must recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Birkat Ha-mazon as well. Even though one is not obligated to eat a festive meal on Rosh Ḥodesh, one must mention Rosh Ḥodesh when reciting Birkat Ha-mazon because of the importance of the day, on which the musafoffering was brought (Shabbat 24a; Tosafot ad loc.). Ya’aleh Ve-yavo is inserted in the berakha of Raḥem, because both are prayers of supplication.

If one forgot to recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Birkat Ha-mazon, he need not repeat the prayer. This is because one who forgets to mention the sanctity of a particular day must repeat Birkat Ha-mazon only on days when there is an obligation to eat a meal with bread, like Shabbat and Yom Tov. On Rosh Ḥodesh and Ḥol Ha-mo’ed, however, one is not obligated to eat such a meal. Therefore, from the perspective of the sanctity of the day, one need not recite Birkat Ha-mazon at all. Consequently, one need not repeat it if he accidentally omitted Ya’aleh Ve-yavo (SA 424:1).¹⁴ before beginning the berakha of Ha-tov Ve-hametiv, the Sages decreed that he should say, “Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, Who gave New Moons to His people Israel as a remembrance” (SA 188:7). According to BHL, one should recite the full berakha, invoking God’s name and kingship (shem u-malkhut), just as one does on Shabbat and Yom Tov. Kaf Ha-ḥayim 188:31, however, maintains that one should omit God’s name and kingship.

footnotes: ¹⁴ If one realizes that he forgot Ya’aleh Ve-yavo

One who began a meal on Rosh Ḥodesh, and managed to eat a kezayit (olive’s bulk) of bread before sunset, must recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo in Birkat Ha-mazon, even if he continued eating long after tzeit ha-kokhavim (also called “tzeit”; meaning,**“the emergence of stars,” i.e., nightfall), because the meal began on Rosh Ḥodesh (SA 188:10; see Kaf Ha-ḥayim 188:43 for the opposing view).

If one began to eat on the eve of Rosh Ḥodesh, and finished his meal after tzeit, he must recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, provided that he ate a kezayit of bread after Rosh Ḥodesh began (SA 271:6, MB 271:29).¹⁵ of bread after tzeit, SA rules that he must, nonetheless, recite Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, as is the law on Shabbat, as explained there. According to Rema, however, he should not recite it. The Aḥaronim also dispute the case of one who began se’uda shlishit on Shabbat and finished his meal on Motza’ei Shabbat (Saturday night), which is also the beginning of Rosh Ḥodesh. See Peninei Halakha:Laws of Shabbat, ch. 7 n. 7.

footnotes: ¹⁵ If one did not eat a kezayit

Rosh Ḥodesh / Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh

There is a widespread custom to recite Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh. Technically there is no obligation to do so, because Hallel is required only on days: a) that are called mo’ed; and b) on which work is prohibited. While Rosh Ḥodesh is indeed called a mo’ed, work is permitted on Rosh Ḥodesh. Still, the Jewish people have accepted the practice of reciting Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh, in order to give expression to the sanctity of the day, which can elevate one to the level of singing God’s praises. To make it clear that reciting Hallel on Rosh Ḥodesh is merely a custom and not obligatory, we omit two paragraphs that are included when reciting the complete Hallel. (The complete Hallel consists of chapters 113-118 of Tehilim; on Rosh Ḥodesh we omit 115:1-11 and 116:1-11).

The Rishonim disagree regarding the berakha. Rambam and Rashi maintain that one should not recite a berakha upon reciting Hallelon Rosh Ḥodesh, since it is only based on a custom, and we do not recite berakhot upon fulfilling customs. Rabbeinu Tam, Rosh, and Ran, however, maintain that we do recite berakhot over important customs such as reciting Hallel. In practice, the Ashkenazic custom is to recite a berakha, even if one recites Hallel without a minyan. The custom of Sephardim hailing from Eretz Yisrael and its surroundings is to recite Hallelon Rosh Ḥodesh without a berakha. The custom of most North African Sephardim is that the ḥazan(prayer leader) recites the berakha – both before and after Hallel – aloud, in order to fulfill the obligation on behalf of the congregation. However, one who prays without a minyan does not recite a berakha. Every person should continue to follow his or her custom.

One should try to recite Hallel with a minyan (a quorum of ten adult men). According to many poskim, one who comes late to services and finds the congregation reciting Hallel should recite it with them and only afterward begin Pesukei De-zimra (MB 422:16 and Yalkut Yosef 422:8; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 422:38, however, cites Arizal as saying that one should not pray out of order).¹⁶ on Rosh Ḥodesh is elucidated in Arakhin 10b, Ta’anit 28b, Tosafot ad loc., and Tosafot Berakhot 14a. (There is another type of obligatory Hallel that is not recited due to the sanctity of a day, but rather in response to a salvation, like the Hallelthat we recite on Ḥanuka. See below 4:6 and 11:8.) Most Rishonim – including Behag, Ritz Gi’at, Raavad, Rabbeinu Tam, Rosh, and Ran – maintain that one should recite a berakhaon this Hallel. Rav Hai Gaon, Rabbeinu Ḥananel, and Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona maintain that one should recite a berakha when reciting it with the congregation, but not in private. See Beit Yosef and SA 422:2. Indeed, as SA states, those living around Eretz Yisrael were accustomed to reciting it without a berakha, while those living in Spain would recite the berakha (Ran*, Magid Mishneh*). Rema 422:2 writes that it is customary to recite a berakha even when reciting Hallel alone, but that it is preferable to recite it with a minyan, in order to account for the opinion that one should only recite the berakha with the congregation. Until recently, several Sephardic communities, including Moroccan, Tunisian, and Turkish Jews, followed the custom that the ḥazan recites the berakhot before and after Hallel aloud. The congregation answers, “Amen,” thus fulfilling their obligation, while those praying privately omit the berakhot. This is also the opinion of R. Moshe Khalfon Ha-Kohen, av beit din of Djerba, in Brit Kehuna OḤ 200:5 and Sho’el Ve-nish’al 2:60; R. Ḥayim Palachi in Kaf Ha-ḥayim §33; Shalmei Ḥagiga, p. 224, Ḥesed La-alafim 422:2, Sha’ar Ha-mifkad, and Responsa Mikveh Ha-mayim 3:24. In his Tevu’ot Shemesh, OḤ 68, R. Shalom Messas determined that this is the halakha in practice, although he himself would recite the berakha in an undertone, along with the ḥazan. Every community should continue following its own custom. When people from different ethnic groups pray together, even if the ḥazan’s custom is to omit the berakha, it is proper for one of the participants who usually recite the berakha to recite the berakha out loud on behalf of those who do not recite a berakha. This way, the congregants will satisfy the opinion of the many poskim who maintain that one must recite a berakha, and at the same time avoid the concern of reciting a berakha le-vatala(berakhain vain). (See Yeḥaveh Da’at 4:31, which expresses apprehension regarding answering “Amen” to this berakha, as it may be a berakha le-vatala. However, many authorities maintain that one need not worry about answering “Amen” to one who recites a berakha in accordance with his community’s custom, which is based on the opinion of prominent poskim. I also heard this from R. Mordechai Eliyahu.) According to all opinions, one should try to recite Hallel with the congregation. Hence, it is better to recite it with a minyan before prayers than to say it alone afterward. This is the opinion of Rabbeinu Peretz, as cited in Beit Yosef 422:2. Many Aḥaronim quote this as well, as we stated above. According to Kaf Ha-ḥayim 422:38, one should not change the order of the prayers.

footnotes: ¹⁶ The issue of Hallel

Rosh Ḥodesh / Customs Related to Reciting Hallel

One must stand while reciting Hallel, because Hallel is a testimony to God’s glory, and witnesses must stand while testifying. Be-di’avad, if one recited Hallel sitting or lying down, he has nonetheless fulfilled his obligation. One who is ill and cannot stand may recite it sitting or lying down le-khatḥila (SA 422:7, MB *ad loc.*28).

One should not interrupt one’s recitation of Hallel, even just by remaining silent. In the case of an important need, however, like preventing an insult, one may interrupt his recitation. One may also interrupt Hallel in order to recite devarim she-bikdusha(“sacred words”; e.g., Kedusha, Kaddish, Barkhu, or Modim). One should recite Hallel in order, from beginning to end. One who recited it out of order has not fulfilled his obligation and must return to the place where he deviated from the proper order and read it in order (SA 422:4-6). It is proper to read Hallel slowly and pleasantly, and many congregations have a custom to sing parts of it.

The Sages ordained that it is proper that one recite Hallel immediately following the Amidaof Shaḥarit. Since we mention the uniqueness of Rosh Ḥodesh in the Amida, in Ya’aleh Ve-yavo, it is appropriate to continue praising God immediately and continue thanking Him for sanctifying Israel and the New Moons. Be-di’avad, one may recite it later in the day, because the entire day is suitable for reciting Hallel (Megilla 20b).

There are various customs regarding how to recite Hallel: which verses are repeated, which verses are recited responsively, etc. All the customs are legitimate and every community should continue following its custom (Sukka 38a-39a, SA 422:3).

Customarily, the ḥazanreads four verses aloud:

1. Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is forever.
2. Let Israel say His loving-kindness is forever.
3. Let the house of Aharon say His loving-kindness is forever.
4. Let those who fear the Lord say His loving-kindness is forever. (Tehilim 118:1-4) According to Ashkenazic custom, the congregation responds, “Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is forever” to each of these verses. According to the Sephardic custom, however, the congregation repeats each verse after the ḥazan.¹⁷, recording the Sephardic custom first and the Ashkenazic custom second. Tosafot and Ran (Sukka 38b) also cite the Ashkenazic custom as described above, as do Tur and Beit Yosef 422:3. The congregation fulfills their obligation to recite the other three verses by hearing the ḥazan chant them out loud. Therefore, they can simply answer, “Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is for ever.” Many Aḥaronim write that since there is reason for concern that some congregants may not hear the ḥazan properly, it is best for the congregation to recite the verses along with the ḥazan, finish shortly before him, and then answer, “Thank the Lord, for He is good, His loving-kindness is for ever.” This is the opinion of MA 422:8, Eliya Rabba 422:13, Maḥatzit Ha-shekel and MB 422:20.

footnotes: ¹⁷ Rav Amram Gaon mentions both customs in his siddur

Regarding the repetition of verses, it has become the accepted custom in the last few generations to repeat each verse from Odekha(“I will thank You”) until the end of Hallel (Tehilim 118:21-29). The reason we repeat these verses is to continue the pattern of the beginning of Tehilim 118, in which every idea is repeated. This pattern ends at “I will thank You,” but we continue the pattern in Hallelby repeating the rest of the verses of that chapter as well. Furthermore, according to the Talmud (Pesaḥim119a), these verses were composed by David, his father Yishai, and his brothers. Thus, because of the importance of these verses, the Sages instructed us to repeat them.

We repeat the verse, “Lord, please, save us. Lord, please, grant us success” (Tehilim 118:25), in a unique manner, reciting the first part twice and then the second part twice.¹⁸ recites the first part of the verse twice, and the congregation then does the same. The ḥazanand congregation then follow this pattern for the second part of the verse as well. TheAshkenazic custom is that the ḥazan recites the first part of the verse one time, and the congregation repeats after him. Then the ḥazanrecites the first part again, and the congregation repeats after him again.**They then follow this pattern for the second part of the verse as well. This raises a question. The Talmud states in Megilla 22a that one may not interrupt a verse in the middle, except for the purpose of teaching young children. Tosafot (Sukka 38b) answer that it is not a true interruption in this case, since this verse was composed by two distinct parties: David and his brothers. Kol Bo suggests that the prohibition of splitting a verse in two only applies to verses from the Torah (MA 422:8). Maharsham explains in Da’at Torah that one may divide a verse in two if it is in the context of prayer. Ashkenazim repeat the four verses beginning with “I will thank you”; “The stone the builders rejected”; “This is the Lord’s doing”; and “This is the day.” The custom of many North African Jews is that the ḥazan recites each verse once, after which the congregation responds likewise; because of the principle that “hearing is like answering,” it is considered as if they repeated each verse.

footnotes: ¹⁸ The Sephardic custom is that the ḥazan

Rosh Ḥodesh / Torah Reading and Musaf

In honor of Rosh Ḥodesh we call up four people to the Torah. The passage that we read first describes the daily burnt offering, followed by the special Rosh Ḥodesh offerings (Bamidbar 28:1-15). This alludes to the fact that one can extend the fixed and continuous sanctity of the twice-daily burnt offering into the special sanctity of Rosh Ḥodesh, which represents renewal, atonement, and repentance.

After we read the Torah and recite Ashrei and U-va Le-Tziyon (and according to some Sephardim, Beit Yaakov and Shir shel Yom[The Psalm of the Day] as well), we recite the Amida of Musaf. This prayer is comprised of the usual three opening berakhotand three closing berakhot, with one middle berakha about Rosh Ḥodesh, which concludes, “Blessed are You, God, Who sanctifies Israel and the New Moons.”

The Sages instituted the Musaf service in place of the musaf offerings that were brought in the Holy Temple on Rosh Ḥodesh. The time frame for this prayer also corresponds to that of the musafofferings. Thus, one must pray Musaf by the end of the seventh seasonal hour of the day, where each seasonal hour is calculated as one-twelfth of the duration of daylight on a given day. One who procrastinates and fails to pray by this time is considered a sinner. Nevertheless, he should pray afterward, because, be-di’avad, one may bring the musaf offering all day long (SA 286:1).

It is customary to remove one’s tefilin before Musaf. On Yom Tov we do not wear tefilin at all; since the day itself is a sign of the covenant between God and Israel, we do not need the additional sign of tefilin as we do on a regular day. Since the Musaf prayer on Rosh Ḥodesh is considered a sign as well, we likewise do not need the additional sign of tefilin (SA 423:4, MB *ad loc.*10). It is customary to remove the tefilin after the Kaddish that precedes Musaf. It is proper to begin the Amida only after the tefilin are completely wrapped in their straps and stored away in their containers, as it is disrespectful to leave one’s tefilinin a state of disarray throughout the Musaf service.¹⁹ 25:13 gives a different reason: It is inappropriate to be without the ‘crown’ of tefilin when reciting the stanza that describes the angels crowning God in the Kedusha of Musaf. However, even Ashkenazim, who omit this stanza, are accustomed to removing their tefilin before Musaf. Therefore, I cited Levush’s explanation that Musaf is considered a sign of the covenant, similar to Yom Tov, when we do not wear tefilin (SA**31:1). The prevalent custom is to remove the tefilin after Kaddish (according to Ba’al Ha-Tanya’s siddur, they are removed before Kaddish). This raises a question regarding the common practice to don tefilin at the brit mila of one’s son, in order to be surrounded by two signs. Do we not learn from the fact that we do not wear tefilin on Shabbat and Yom Tov that one should not display two signs together, as each one implies that the other is insufficient, thus degrading both (SA 31:1)? Eliya Rabba 29:1 answers in the name of Roke’aḥ that the sign of brit mila does not commemorate the Exodus from Egypt; therefore, one may combine it with another sign. Tefilin, Shabbat, and Yom Tov, however, commemorate the Exodus and should not be combined.

footnotes: ¹⁹ Beit Yosef

Another prevalent custom is to recite Barkhi Nafshi (Tehilim 104) during Shaḥarit, because it contains the verse “He made the moon to mark the seasons (le-mo’adim),” alluding to the festivals. Some believe that the Levites recited this psalm in the Temple on Rosh Ḥodesh (AHS 423:5).²⁰SA, and MB 423:2; Yalkut Yosef 423:4; Sefer Rosh Ḥodesh 7:9. If one prayed Musaf before Shaḥarit, he has discharged his obligation, but ideally one should pray Shaḥarit first, just as one should bring the daily burnt offering before all other offerings (Rema 286:1). According to both Ashkenazic and hasidic customs, one recites Barkhi Nafshi after the regular Shir shel Yom; those who follow Nusaḥ Sepharad(prayer rite developed by Ḥasidim) recite both songs after Hallel, while those who follow Nusaḥ Ashkenazdo so after Musaf. Some Sephardim have the custom of reciting the Shir shel Yom after U-va Le-Tzyion, before the Kaddish that precedes Musaf, and Barkhi Nafshi after Musaf. Others recite Barkhi Nafshi after Musaf and omit the Shir shel Yom altogether. The Ashkenazic custom is to return the Torah scroll to the ark immediately after reading from it (MB 423:5). SA 423:3 states that it should be returned after U-va Le-Tziyon, and the Sephardic and hasidic custom follows this practice. (However, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 135:2 and 423:11 advocates following the Ashkenazic custom. In addition, for kabbalistic reasons, it is R. Ovadia Yosef’s practice to return the Torah scroll to the ark immediately after the Torah reading on Rosh Ḥodesh, as well as on Mondays and Thursdays [Yalkut Yosef 423:6 with notes].)

footnotes: ²⁰ For the order of the Torah reading, see Tur, Beit Yosef,

Rosh Ḥodesh / The Meaning of Birkat Ha-levana

In Birkat Ha-levana(the Berakha of the Moon), we thank God for creating the moon, from whose light we benefit at night. Many Jews have attached special honor and affection to this berakha, as it alludes to deep concepts concerning the Jewish people. We will explain some of these concepts here.

Of all the heavenly bodies, the moon is most similar to us. Just as a person’s life is filled with ups and downs, the moon waxes and wanes through the course of each month. In the middle of the month, the moon appears full, but as it nears the end of the month it dwindles and disappears. And just as Adam, the first man, gave in to his pride and desires and ate from the Tree of Knowledge and was punished, the moon was not satisfied being equally luminous as the sun, asking instead to rule over it (see above, section 5). In retribution for the moon’s arrogance, God reduced its light and even created the lunar cycle in which it wanes every month, eventually disappearing for an entire day. However, unlike man, who eventually fades away and dies, the moon remains part of the heavenly hosts and is fixed and everlasting, always regenerating itself. The Jewish people have the exact same qualities. On the one hand, they lead normal human lives, which include ups and downs, a good inclination as well as an evil inclination. On the other hand, their connection to faith and God is everlasting. Therefore, unlike other nations, the Jewish people will endure forever. We connect to this idea of Israel’s immortality through Birkat Ha-levana, which we recite upon seeing the moon reappear and begin to grow anew every month.

Moreover, not only do we manage to survive despite all the hardships that we experience, we actually advance to a higher level as a result of each crisis and setback. King David taught us how to transform each setback into an impetus for greater growth. The Sages relate that David was the lowliest of his brothers, growing up in the fields among the animals, but he succeeded in maturing and improving from every experience. Even after his difficult fall in the sin of Bat-Sheva, he did not despair. Rather, he repented completely, to the point where the Sages say that “he established the yoke of repentance” (Mo’ed Katan 16b). David transformed his awful failure into tremendous self-improvement, and ever since then we learn from him the ways of repentance and the true extent of its power. By virtue of his repentance, David’s kingdom is everlasting, just as the moon always rejuvenates after its decline.

This is why David’s kingdom is compared to the moon, and it is also why we recite in the Kiddush Levana ceremony, “David, King of Israel, lives and endures.” The Jewish people grow from every setback as well, rectifying all their sins and blemishes, until they will eventually be privileged to perfect the world under the sovereignty of God. At that time, the moon, which symbolizes our situation in the world, will also return to its perfected state, when its light will be as bright as the sun’s. Thus, we beseech God in Birkat Ha-levana, “It [the moon] should renew itself as a crown of glory for those He carried from the womb, for they [Israel] are destined to be renewed like it, and to praise their Creator for the sake of His glorious majesty.”

Some have a custom to add the following request: May it be Your will, Lord my God and God of my ancestors, to make good the deficiency of the moon, so that it is no longer in its diminished state. May the light of the moon be like the light of the sun and like the light of the seven days of creation as it was before it was diminished, as it says, “The two great luminaries” (Bereishit 1:16). And may there be fulfilled for us the verse: “They shall seek the Lord their God, and David their king” (Hoshe’a 3:5). Amen.²¹ indicate that the non-Jews at the time followed the solar calendar. The reason for this is tied to man’s desire to utilize the sun, which stems from a desire for absolute perfection. However, the truth is that this is beyond man’s reach. And since the non-Jews fail to attain absolute perfection, they forfeit what they could have achieved by revealing God’s name in the world. By contrast, the Jews know how to operate within this world while clinging to God, which manifests itself through constant self-perfection. Calculating the months according to the lunar cycle alludes to our efforts in this world, while calculating the years according to the solar calendar alludes to our constant aspiration for perfection. The Islamic calendar’s use of lunar months is based on the Hebrew calendar, but theirs is a purely lunar calendar that does not account for the solar year. This signifies a lack of aspiration for continuous self-perfection and an entrenchment in this world. It also explains why Islam perceives reward, even in the hereafter, in predominantly physical terms. It is important to add that even when the moon is invisible to us, it is not actually gone; it is merely hidden from view. When this occurs, none of the light it absorbs from the sun is reflected toward the earth, thus making it indiscernible to us. The same is true of the nation of Israel: Even when it is in a period of descent, its inner essence remains unblemished; “Every part of you is fair, my darling, there is no blemish in you” (Shir Ha-shirim 4:7).

footnotes: ²¹ Numerous midrashim

*Rosh Ḥodesh / The Laws of Reciting Birkat Ha-levanaJoyously*

Because of the lofty idea that the moon’s renewal represents, Birkat Ha-levana has been hallowed to the point that one who recites it is viewed as if he is greeting the Shekhina (Divine Presence). Thus, in the academy of Rabbi Yishmael it was taught: “Were the people of Israel privileged to greet the presence of their heavenly Father only once a month (when reciting Birkat Ha-levana), it would have been sufficient for them” (San. 42a). Therefore, Abaye concluded that one must honor the berakha and recite it while standing (San. 42a.). One who finds it difficult to stand should lean on his cane or a friend and recite the berakha. And if leaning is too difficult, he may recite it while sitting.²².; BHL, ad loc.,**end of s.v. “u-mevarekh me’umad”; Yalkut Yosef 426:11. (Ben Ish Ḥai, Year 2, Vayikra 23 states that it is proper to recite the berakha with one’s feet together, but the prevalent custom is not to do so.) Reciting this berakha is like greeting the Shekhina because the Shekhina alludes to Knesset Yisrael (the Assembly of Israel), both of which are related to the attribute of God’s kingship. See also Maharal’s Ḥidushei Aggadot 3:158, which states that every initial renewal contains an aspect of greeting the Shekhina. BHL loc. cit. states that we recognize God’s greatness through the moon and stars; therefore, reciting this berakha is similar to greeting the Shekhina.

footnotes: ²² SA 426:2; R. Akiva Eger, ad loc

It is customary to honor the berakha by reciting it with a minyan. In the absence of a minyan, it is best to recite it in a group of three, but technically one may recite it alone. If one is concerned that if he puts off reciting the berakhauntil a minyan can be gathered he will forget to recite the berakha altogether, it is preferable not to wait, but to recite it alone (BHL 426:2, s.v. “ela”).

It is customary to go outside and recite the berakha under the open sky. After all, we learned above that Birkat Ha-levana is compared to greeting the Shekhina. Therefore, one should approach reciting this berakhaas if one is going out to greet a king. One who is sick or concerned that he might catch a cold if he ventures outside may view the moon through a window and recite the berakha indoors (MB 426:21).

In order to honor the berakha, which entails an aspect of greeting the Shekhina, we are accustomed to reciting it immediately after Shabbat, when we are joyful and dressed nicely. However, if there is reason to be concerned that waiting until Motza’ei Shabbat will cause us to miss the opportunity to recite the berakha altogether, it is preferable to recite it on a weeknight (SA*,*Rema 426:2).

It is customary not to recite Birkat Ha-levana on Friday night, in order to avoid mingling the joy of Shabbat with that of Birkat Ha-levana. However, if there is reason to be concerned that one might not recite the berakha on time, he should recite it on Friday night (Rema 426:2, MB 426:12).

As we already learned, the moon alludes to Knesset Yisrael (the Assembly of Israel). Like a bride before God, Knesset Yisrael renews and purifies itself every month, just as a bride does for her husband. This strengthens the bond between Knesset Yisrael and God. And when all of the world’s flaws are remedied, everyone will recognize the special relationship that exists between Israel and God, as it says, “As a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you” (Yeshayahu 62:5). Therefore, a custom developed to dance and sing after Birkat Ha-levana. Along the same lines, there is a custom to rise on one’s toes slightly when saying, “Just as I leap toward You…” (Rema 426:2).

Since we must recite the berakha joyously, we do not recite it before Tisha Be-Av, when we are mourning the Temple’s destruction, or before Yom Kippur, due to the anxiety of the upcoming Day of Judgment. We do recite it, however, immediately after Yom Kippur, even though we have not yet eaten, because we are overjoyed to have had the privilege to stand before God in penitence. It is proper to postpone Kiddush Levana until the night after Tisha Be-Av, or until people have had a chance to eat and drink and leave their state of mourning (Rema 426:2). However, if it will be difficult to gather a minyan later on, a congregation may recite Birkat Ha-levanaimmediately after the fast is over (MB 426:11, SHT 426:9; see also below 10:19).

Similarly, one who is sitting shiva should postpone reciting Birkat Ha-levana until after the shiva period is over, if possible, even if he will have to recite it alone, because he is grieving. If, however, he cannot postpone it, because shiva will end after the permissible time to recite the berakha, he should recite it even during his mourning period (MB 426:11, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:5; the latest time to recite the berakha will be elucidated below, section 18).

Rosh Ḥodesh / Seeing the New Moon

We recite Birkat Ha-levanaover the new moon at night, because that is when it is clearly visible and one can benefit from its light. One may not recite the berakha if he sees the moon at twilight, because the sun’s light is still visible then and thus one does not benefit purely from the light of the moon at that time (Rema 426:1). Before reciting the berakha, one must look at the moon for a moment in order to derive pleasure from its light, but it is customary not to look at the moon when actually reciting the berakha (MB 426:13, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:34). If one recites the berakha when the moon is covered by clouds he has not fulfilled his obligation, because he cannot benefit from its light. However, if it is covered only by a thin layer of clouds, and one can see things that are usually visible by the light of the moon, he may recite the berakha. Nevertheless, it is best to recite Birkat Ha-levanawhen the moon is clearly visible, with no obstruction. Some authorities write that it is preferable to postpone Birkat Ha-levana in such a situation, but technically one may recite the berakha even if a thin cloud passes underneath the moon, since one can still derive benefit from its light. It seems to me that as long as one can discern the outline of the moon through the cloud, one may recite the berakha.²³ §184 that one may not recite the berakha if the moon is covered by even a very thin cloud, and Ben Ish Ḥai, Year 2*,*Vayikra 23 concurs. Nevertheless, it seems that all agree that technically one may recite the berakha as long as one benefits from the moon’s light. This is the conclusion of Yalkut Yosef 426:5. Eshel Avraham (Buczacz) explains that one may recite the berakha if the light of the moon allows one to see most of the things that are usually visible when the moon is unobstructed. This is assessed based on the amount of moonlight on the seventh night of the month, or in pressing circumstances, on the fourth of the month. According to this opinion, one may recite the berakha toward the middle of the month (when there is more moonlight) even if the moon is covered by a thicker cloud, and one may recite it toward the beginning of the month (when there is less moonlight) only if the cloud is very thin. The poskim, however, seem to indicate that the distinction depends only on the thickness of the cloud, irrespective of the day on which the berakha is recited. So writes Sefer Kiddush Levana 2:3 (with notes). Therefore, in my humble opinion, it seems that if one can see the outline of the moon, it is considered “visible”, and one may recite the berakha. Technically, though, the halakha follows the opinion of Radbaz and Eshel Avraham. This is apparent from the words of Terumat Ha-deshen quoted in Leket Yosher: “Once, he saw only a small portion of the moon, because it was partially covered by a cloud, and he nevertheless sanctified it.” Some wrote that one should look at the moon only briefly. See MB 426:13 and Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:34. Many authorities write that one who recited the berakha without looking at the moon has fulfilled his obligation, as long as he could have seen it had he looked. They derive this, by logical inference, from the law of a blind person. Most poskim maintain that a blind person must recite Birkat Ha-levana, because the berakha was instituted in recognition of the moon’s renewal and thus applies whether or not one can see it. In addition, even blind people benefit from the moon, as others use its light to escort them. This is the viewpoint of Maharshal, MA, Eliya Rabba, and Pri Ḥadash. However, Maharikash maintains that a blind person should not recite the berakha, as he does not derive pleasure from the moon. In practice, a blind person should not recite the berakha, because of the uncertainty surrounding the matter. Nevertheless, it is preferable that he hear the berakha from someone else (see MB 426:1; BHL 426, s.v. “nehenin”; Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:2).

footnotes: ²³ Radbaz 1:341 writes that it primarily depends on one’s ability to derive benefit from the moon’s light, and many Aḥaronim cite this position, including MA and MB 426:3. However, Ḥida writes in Moreh Be-etzba

If, while reciting the berakha, the moon becomes completely obscured by clouds, one should continue reciting the berakha. However, if one estimates that while reciting the berakha a large cloud will obscure the moon completely, he should not begin reciting the berakha, because le-khatḥila, the entire berakha should be recited when the moon is in view (Radbaz 1:341; MB 426:2; BHL ad loc.,**s.v. “nehenin”).

Rosh Ḥodesh / The Proper Time for Birkat Ha-levana

Many Rishonim maintain that the time for reciting Birkat Ha-levana begins on the first day the moon is visible, and that the earlier one recites the berakha the better (MT, Laws of Berakhot 10:17; Rosh; and others). Several poskim, however, posit that it is preferable to wait until the moon grows somewhat, when it is possible to benefit from its light. Some say that one should wait until three whole days pass, as that is when the moon’s light begins to be usable (R. Saadia Gaon, Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona), while others say that seven days must pass, because that is when one can begin to truly benefit from its light (Responsa Rema Mi-Fano §78). According to some of the greatest kabbalists – most notably, R. Yosef Gikatilla – one should wait seven days, for kabbalistic reasons. They explain that the renewal of the moon’s light alludes to man’s renewal, and whenever there is a new development there is concern that God’s attribute of justice might prosecute and hinder the new growth. Therefore, it is proper to wait seven days, like the seven days of creation, since by then the moon’s light will have stabilized and the attribute of justice can no longer prosecute against the new beginning.

The Sephardic and Hasidic custom is to wait until the seventh of the month to recite the berakha (SA 426:4), while the Ashkenazic custom is to recite it after three days have passed (Baḥ, MB 426:20). In practice, though, it is customary to recite Birkat Ha-levanaon Motza’ei Shabbat, so that the berakha can be recited joyously, while wearing nice clothing. Thus, practically speaking, Ashkenazim and Moroccan Jews recite Birkat Ha-levana on the Motza’ei Shabbatthat follows three whole days after the molad, while Sephardim and Ḥasidim recite it on the first Motza’ei Shabbat after the seventh of the month.

There is a dispute regarding how to act when the seventh of the month begins on a Motza’ei Shabbat, but seven complete days from the time of the molad (168 hours) have not yet passed. Some authorities maintain that we postpone the berakha until the next night or the next Motza’ei Shabbat, which will fall out on the fourteenth of the month (Rashash, R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:61). Others contend that even if a few hours remain until the end of the seventh day after the molad, one may recite Birkat Ha-levana (Knesset Ha-gedola, Yeḥaveh Da’at 2:24). If people from different ethnic backgrounds pray together and the seventh of the month falls out on a Motza’ei Shabbat, it is proper for everyone to recite Birkat Ha-levana, as that is the position of the majority of poskim.²⁵ and SA 426:4, Baḥ and MB ad loc., Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:61, Sefer Kiddush Levana 3:1-2. Many Rishonim maintain that the berakha should be recited immediately upon the moon’s reappearance at the beginning of the month. R. Yaakov Rakaḥ writes in Shulḥan Leḥem Ha-panim that this seems to be the opinion of R. Amram Gaon, Behag, Rif, Rambam, Rosh, and others. Baḥ points out that the Talmud implies that one should not recite Kiddush Levana after the seventh day. Rambam, as well, indicates that it is preferable to recite it as early as possible. On the other hand, some poskim infer from Sofrim 20:1 that one should not recite Birkat Ha-levana until it is possible to benefit from its light. Talmidei Rabbeinu Yona, R. David Abudraham, Kol Bo, and others espouse this viewpoint. This is also the practical implication of the discussion cited above in n. 22. According to Kabbala, one should recite the berakha after seven days. In practice, the Ashkenazic custom is to recite Birkat Ha-levanaafter three days have passed. This is also the custom of North African Jews (R. Shalom Messas and many others). Most Sephardim and Ḥasidim, based on Kabbala, are accustomed to reciting the berakha after seven days. Moreover, some Ashkenazim follow this custom le-khatḥila, as Ḥatam Sofer OḤ 102 and AHS 426:13 state. Nonetheless, when the seventh day falls out on a Motza’ei Shabbat, it seems preferable to recite Birkat Ha-levana then, even if seven complete days from the molad have not yet passed. After all, there is already abundant moonlight and part of a day is often regarded in halakha as an entire day. Moreover, Motza’ei Shabbat is a joyous time, which makes it particularly suited for Birkat Ha-levana. In addition, several poskim maintain that one should recite the berakha as early as possible (Ramban and his adherents), while others assert that one should not recite it after the seventh of the month (Baḥ). Therefore, it is proper to recite it on the night of the seventh day, even if seven complete days have not passed since the molad. This is how Knesset Ha-gedola, Responsa Rema Mi-Fano §78, Nahar Mitzrayim, Eliya Rabba, Eshel Avraham (Buczacz), Maharsham, and others conclude. Women and Birkat Ha-levana: Since this berakha is time-dependent, women are exempt from reciting it. And even though according to Ashkenazic custom, women may recite time-bound berakhot, the prevalent custom is that women do not to recite Birkat Ha-levana(MB 426:1). See Peninei Halakha:Women’s Prayer ch. 23 n. 1.

footnotes: ²⁵ See Beit Yosef

One who failed to recite Birkat Ha-levana by the seventh of the month may recite it until the end of the night of the fifteenth, because the moon is still waxing until then. Afterward, however, the moon begins to wane; therefore, the berakha cannot be said from the night of the sixteenth and onward (SA 426:3).

Preferably, one should take into account the opinion of Maharil, who maintains that one may not recite Birkat Ha-levana after half of the lunar cycle has elapsed (fourteen days, eighteen hours, and approximately twenty minutes, from the time of the molad). This time rarely elapses by the beginning of the night of the fourteenth. By the night of the fifteenth, the lunar cycle sometimes reaches the halfway mark and sometimes does not (Rema 426:3, Kaf Ha-ḥayim 426:53). Nevertheless, in practice, one who did not recite the berakha by the night of the fourteenth may recite it until the end of the night of the fifteenth (BHL 426:3, Yabi’a Omer 8:42).